Nov 2020 – Page 2

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ARTICLE 78: Research Methods for Ph. D. and Master’s Degree Studies: Interviewing Part 2 of 4: Online interviewing

7th Nov 2020 No Comments

Written by Dr. Hannes Nel

The world is changing at an incredible pace.

I wonder how my late parents would have responded to the laptop computer and the internet.

I guess they would probably have refused to touch it, let alone use it.

And they were rather open-minded.

As far as I am concerned, it is the one thing that I would have loved to see develop even further.

Even though it is already hard to keep pace with what we now have.

I discuss online interviewing in this article.

Any type of interview can be conducted electronically. Electronic interviews can take place either synchronously or asynchronously. Synchronous environments include real-time chat rooms, instant messenger protocols, and real-time threaded communications. Such environments provide you and the interviewees an experience similar to face-to-face interaction insofar as they provide a mechanism for a back-and-forth exchange of questions and answers in almost real time over really long distances, actually world-wide. Computer facilities, such as Skype, ZOOM, etc. facilitate visual communication.

Asynchronous environments include the use of e-mail, forums, and privately hosted bulletin posting areas. Asynchronous environments are typically used by researchers undertaking survey-based research or a Delphi technique.

Technological developments and the growth of the internet have developed opportunities for online interviewing in qualitative research and have reduced the problems related to face-to-face interviews. The internet has altered the nature of the context in which research can take place and how knowledge is constructed by offering a different space and dimension in which conventional research designs and methods can be used and adapted.

Online interviews can be used to gather original data via the internet with the intention of analysing these to provide new evidence in relation to a specific research question. This contrasts with secondary internet research, that uses existing documents or information sources found online. Online interviews can be conducted asynchronously, i.e. in non-real-time, and synchronously, i.e. in real-time and can involve audio, textual as well as visual exchanges. Currently, emails, Facebook, bulletin boards and discussion groups, including focus groups and forums, are the most used methods of asynchronous online interviewing. Synchronous approaches focus on text-based chat groups, instant message protocols, voice-over internet protocol (VOIP) and visual conferencing to ask and answer questions and to see interview participants while conversing.

In synchronous interviews the interaction and sharing of experiences are framed by the researcher and participant(s) online presence. The real-time nature of online interviews, whether one-to-one or focus-group interviews, can encourage spontaneous interactions between participants and the researcher, whether they are involved in text-based one-to-one or group interviews or multi-channel visual interviews.

Online synchronous interviewing facilitated by online communication platforms can lead to rapid, real-time discussions. Creative use of interactive visual stimulus means they can be valuable platforms for facilitating immediate and dynamic group interactions and creating new forms of knowledge. These interactions can elevate participants’ awareness of each other and narrow the psychological distance between participants as well as enhance the feeling of joint involvement. Alternatively, you as the researcher, can set up your online forum or use an external provider to offer both synchronous text communication and a graphical representation of the environment.

An issue that can be challenging for both researchers and participants of online interviews is the fast-paced nature of online discussions, which can lead to researchers and participants lagging. The distinction between responding and ending can become blurred or responses can become brief, with the result that important data might not be shared.

Increased bandwidth and the availability of inexpensive, easy-to-use technologies have made it more viable to conduct synchronous online audio and visual interviews. Synchronous online focus groups can be set up with tools such as instant messaging and chat rooms and can offer a less threatening interview environment than visual interviews because they offer no visual clues about other participants, although you will need to make participants aware that they are taking part in a research project. You also need to establish a friendly atmosphere and to act as moderator and facilitator of the discussions. The speed and complexity of participant interactions can result in a chaotic script which can be frustrating and lead to misinterpretation of the meaning of what people said and loss of some information.

Asynchronous interviews that are conducted in non-real time are far easier to set up than synchronous interviews in terms of technological requirements. Email, for example, allows you to ask questions and receive responses as and when it suits you and the interviewee. Even so, a clear protocol in terms of the interviewing process is still needed. Also keep in mind that you will need the permission of the holders of online blogs, email addresses, etc. to use the data shared online.

Textual data collected asynchronously are in written form, therefore there is no need to transcribe. This increases the accuracy of the transcripts and reduces the potential for error. It may also enhance the interpretation of what is communicated by you as the researcher. Participants may compensate for the lack of non-verbal cues by ensuring that their descriptions portray the level of meaning and emotion that they wish to communicate, allowing a greater level of transparency and sensitivity to the original context of the data. The explicit expression of emotion in written language can be more easily interpreted and incorporated into analyses than the implicit emotional nuances offered in spoken communication.

Asynchronous data collection can be simple to administer because you only need to send your questions to the interviewees and then wait for a reply, making it a questionnaire rather than an interview. However, it can take several days or weeks for participants to reply to the questions. Further, there is a greater risk of non-response from participants than with synchronous interviews. Participants can even withdraw from the project if they regard other obligations as more important.

You may need to work hard to maintain a rapport with participants who only engage irregularly with your research project. Probes or prompts to main questions can get lost in participants’ electronic communication traffic. It is relatively easy for participants to delete messages or questions if they are too busy to respond. Spontaneity of interaction can be lost if participants digress to subjects outside the research project, making it difficult to maintain the flow of the discussion.

When conducting online interviews, you need to decide how you are going to access the target population and how you will obtain information from all the participants. When using visual conferencing with certain populations, access and availability can be greatly improved because individuals are not only connected through their home computers but also on their cell phones, tablets, reading devices or at internet cafés. For most people, this is not a problem, but older people and people with disabilities, for example, may not have access to or be able to take part in an online interview.

Whichever mode (synchronous or asynchronous interviewing) or type (one-to-one or group interview, visual or audio) you choose for your online research, you need to consider how you are going to establish a research relationship with your participants. You also need to consider the impact of the online interaction on those being researched.

In face-to-face interviews, the presentation of self is based not only on what participants choose to show, for example through gestures or tone of voice, but also on how that is perceived by others participating in social interaction. In online text-based interviews, the written word becomes the sole means of building rapport and trust. When face-to-face contact is absent, you need to keep in mind the potential obstacles that anonymity and disembodiment pose in attempting to establish a relationship of trust with other people online. When visual and social gestures and cues in online interviews are not visible, such as friendly gestures (nodding, smiling, eye contact, etc.) these have to be translated into text and you should more quickly and with greater clarity establish the profiles of the participants to determine if they can add value to your research.

Unless you are using web-cameras or visual conferencing, you and the other participants are hidden from each other. This has a detrimental effect on the discussions that will take place, although it can promote the accuracy and validity of information on sensitive topics.

Any interview situation, no matter how formalised, restricted or standardised, relies upon interaction between participants who are constantly engaged in interpretive practice. When using the internet as a communicative social space to host interaction between participants, you need to consider critically the authenticity of the data that you obtain and interpret. Online interviews or a mixture of face-to-face and online media are not less authentic or truthful than offline data. Standards of authenticity should be confirmed, even though you will need to largely rely on the trustworthiness of the participants.

Summary

Any type of interview can be conducted electronically.

Electronic interviews can take place either synchronously or asynchronously.

Technological developments and the growth of the internet have developed opportunities for online interviewing.

Synchronous approaches focus on text-based chat groups, instant message protocols, voice-over internet protocol and visual conferencing for interactive interviewing.

Currently social media are the most used for asynchronous online interviewing.

Online synchronous interviewing facilitated by online communication platforms can also lead to rapid, real-time discussions.

The fast-paced nature of online discussions can lead to researchers and participants lagging.

This can lead to the collection of superficial data.

Increased bandwidth and the availability of inexpensive, easy-to-use technologies made it more viable to conduct synchronous online audio and visual interviews.

Asynchronous interviews that are conducted non-real time are far easier to set up than synchronous interviews in terms of technological requirements.

You will need the permission of the holders of online social media platforms to use the data shared online.

Textual data collected asynchronously are in written form, therefore there is no need to transcribe the data.

Asynchronous data collection can be simple to administer.

Maintaining contact and rapport with interviewees can be challenging.

When conducting online interviews, you must decide how you are going to access the target population. You also need to decide how you will obtain information from all the participants.

Especially older people are reluctant to participate in online interviewing for a variety of reasons.

You should consider the impact of the online interaction on the interviewees.

Not being able to see participants in an online interview makes it difficult to establish trust and loyalty.

It will also be difficult to establish if the interviewee has enough relevant expertise, knowledge and experience to add value to your research project.

Online interviews or a mixture of face-to-face and online media are not less authentic or truthful than offline data.

Close

It is difficult to keep pace with the rapid development of electronics and the internet.

New interviewing opportunities are created all the time.

You can render your research much more efficient if you stay informed about new developments.

And, of course, you must use the facilities and opportunities that become available.

Enjoy your studies.

Thank you.

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ARTICLE 77: Research Methods for Ph. D. and Master’s Degree studies: Data Collection Methods: Interviewing Part 1 of 4 Parts

3rd Nov 2020 No Comments

Written by Dr. Hannes Nel

Interviewing is one of the most popular data collection methods in almost any research, therefore it deserves special attention. It involves questioning and discussing issues with people and can be a useful technique for collecting data which would likely not be accessible using techniques such as observation.

I discuss the following types of interviewing in this article:

One-to-one interviewing.
Structured interviewing.
Unstructured interviewing.
Non-directive interviewing.
Focused interviewing.
In-depth interviewing.

One-to-one interviewing. One-to-one interviewing should be treated as a narrative between two individuals. According to Holstein and Gubrium this can be achieved by approaching the interview as follows:

1. The interviewee and interviewer should co-operate to obtain relevant and current information.

2. Utilise open communication to gather logical information that will contribute to the achievement of the research purpose. This will require communicating in the context of the research environment.

3. Carefully consider what is communicated to ensure that the information provided by the interviewee is relevant to the research context and problem statement, question or hypothesis.

4. Guard against cognitive dissonance. Be objective and make sure that you interpret what the interviewee communicates correctly.

5. Listen and observe more widely than just the interviewee. Take note of external cues that might influence the meanings of what is communicated, for example body language, tone of voice, the venue where the interview takes place, etc.

6. Be alert to differences in interpretation of what is communicated between you and the interviewee. Ask questions to ensure that you understand what the interviewee means.

7. Keep the environment in which the interview takes place in mind. External factors can also cloud the true meaning of the communication between the interviewer and the interviewee, and these should be eliminated if possible.

Structured interviewing. The structured interview is one in which the content and procedures are organised in advance. Organising the content and procedures in advance implies proper planning and includes determining the sequence and wording of the questions by means of a schedule. You, as the interviewer, should not modify your questions or schedule unnecessarily. This should not be necessary if you planned well. There will be direct verbal interaction between you and the subject. You should provide for a measure of flexibility even though the interviewing plan is structured and, by implication, relatively rigid. A structured interview is, therefore, a closed situation.

A structured interview is, thus an oral, in-person asking of a standard set of questions that is prepared in advance. The questions usually invite selected- or semi-structured responses. When asked a selected-response question, the subject selects the response from alternatives provided by the interviewer. Semi-structured questions are phrased to allow unique responses for each subject. Regardless of the type of question, the responses are coded, tabulated and summarised numerically.

Unstructured interviewing. The unstructured interview is an open situation, allowing greater freedom and more flexibility than in the case of the structured interview. You will need to plan and develop the questions to be asked, their content, sequence and wording, keeping the purpose of the interview in mind. Although relatively casual, the unstructured interview needs to be carefully planned.

The unstructured interview has been variously described as naturalistic, autobiographical, in-depth, narrative or non-directive. Whatever the label used, the informal interview is modelled on the conversation and, like the conversation, is a social event with, in this instance, two participants. The interactional rules may be explicit and easy to recognise by the two participants in the interview, namely you and the subject. In addition to its generally social character, there are several ways in which the interview constitutes a learning process. At the level of its process, participants can discover, uncover or generate the rules by which they are involved in the research process, be it as researcher or target group. You, as the interviewer, can become more adept at interviewing, in general, in terms of the strategies which are appropriate for eliciting responses, and in enabling people to talk about the sensitive issues.

Non-directive interviewing. According to Cohen, Manion and Morrison, the non-directive interview derives from the therapeutic or psychiatric interview. The non-directive interview will typically be free flowing with little, if any direction by you. The respondent must express his or her subjective feelings as fully and as spontaneously as he or she chooses or is able to. The respondent should, furthermore, be encouraged to talk about the subject being researched and to be free to guide the interview, with few set questions or pre-figured framework. You should prompt and probe, pressing for clarity and elucidation, rephrasing and summarising where necessary and checking for confirmation of this, particularly if the issues are complex or vague.

Focused interviewing. The focused interview is characterised by more interviewer control than in the case of a non-directive situation. This will enable you to use the data from the interview to substantiate or reject previously formulated hypotheses. You can place explicit verbal cues to the stimulus pattern or even represent it, thereby encouraging more concrete responses by interviewees.

In-depth interviewing. An in-depth interview is mostly also a structured interview. In an in-depth interview you will fully explain the nature of the research project and the potential risks and benefits at the beginning of the interview. Once the interviewee has been briefed, you should ask him or her if he or she understands the information and is still willing to take part in the interview.

An in-depth interview is often characterised as a conversation with a goal. You may use a general interview guide or protocol but not a set of specific questions worded precisely the same for every interview. Rather, there are a few general questions, with considerable latitude to pursue a wide range of topics. The interviewee can shape the content of the interview by focusing on topics of importance or interest. In fact, you should encourage the interviewee to talk in detail about areas of interest. In-depth interviews typically last an hour or more. You will probably make an electronic recording of the interview to analyse common themes from descriptions of experiences. The benefit of this form of implied consent is the elimination of any record of the interviewee’s name. Confidentiality, however, is necessary for most types of interviews.
Summary

Interviewing can be used to collect data for most research methods and topics.

One-to-one interviewing is like a narrative between two people with the intention of collecting data for research.

It requires:

Co-operation.
Open communication.
Careful consideration for relevance.
Avoidance of cognitive dissonance.
Taking note of external cues.
Alertness.
Taking external factors into consideration.

In structured interviewing the content of and procedure for the interview are organised in advance.

Although a structured interview is a closed situation, a measure of flexibility should be allowed.

The unstructured interview allows greater freedom and flexibility than the structured interview.

Although the unstructured interview is modelled on the conversation, it needs to be carefully planned.

The non-directive interview will be free flowing with little, if any, direction by the researcher.

The respondent can express his or her personal feelings spontaneously.

In the case of a focused interview the researcher will have more control over the process than in a non-directive situation.

The data gathered through a focused interview can be used to test a hypothesis.

An in-depth interview is mostly also a structured interview.

In an in-depth interview the interviewee is briefed in advance about the procedure, purpose and possible consequences of the interview.

You should introduce the in-depth interview with some general questions followed by impromptu questions on a wider range of topics.

The questions must still be relevant to your research, though.

Close

Interviewing is an interesting way to collect data.

Most people are open and honest when they are interviewed about academic topics.

Even so, you should corroborate the data that you collect through interviewing.

Natural scientists are sometimes sceptical about data collected through interviewing.

However, they are often eager to discuss their research projects with other scientists who are experts in the same field.

And that is also a form of interviewing.

You should rather not use interviewing to collect data if you follow an ethnomethodological paradigmatic approach.

Ethnomethodology rejects interviewing as a data collection method.

Enjoy your studies.

Thank you.

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ARTICLE 76: Research Methods for Ph. D. and Master’s Degree Studies: Qualitative Data Collection Methods

2nd Nov 2020 No Comments

Written by Dr. Hannes Nel

This is the most exciting part of academic research.

Collecting data is an adventure.

It is an opportunity for you to discover things that you never knew or saw before.

The more you set your imagination and creative spirit free, the more original will your research findings be.

And this applies to natural scientists making use of quantitative research approaches as well.

All the data collection methods that I will discuss in the next three videos can also be used as quantitative methods.

It all depends on your imagination and creativity.

I discuss qualitative data collection methods, that can also be used in quantitative research, in this article.

Qualitative research means any type of research that produces findings not arrived at by statistical procedures or other means of quantification. It, therefore, implies qualitative data collection methods. Qualitative techniques collect data primarily in the form of words rather than numbers. The study provides a detailed narrative description, analysis, and interpretation of phenomena. Most interactive qualitative researchers employ several techniques in a study but usually select one as the central method.

To some extent participant observation, observation from the outside and interviewing are part of all interactive research. Other methods are used to supplement or to increase the credibility of the findings. Non-interactive research primarily depends on documents. Qualitative techniques provide verbal descriptions to portray the richness and complexity of events that occur in natural settings from the participants’ perspectives. Once collected, the data are analysed inductively to generate findings. The following are examples of qualitative data collection methods.

1. Artefacts.

2. Graphics and drawings.

3. Interviewing.

4. Observation.

5. Online data sources.

6. Written documents.

Artefacts. Artefacts are material objects and symbols of a current or past event, group, person, or organisation. These objects are tangible entities that reveal social processes, meanings, and values. Examples of symbols are logos and mascots of school teams; some examples of objects are diplomas, award plaques, and student products such as art work, papers, posters, models, etc. The meaning assigned to an artefact and the social processes that produced the artefact are often more important than the artefact itself.

Graphics and drawings. Graphics include any kind of visual data. Researchers tend not to use visual data to the full in qualitative research. Participants in the research can all be encouraged to collect and generate visual data. However, it is you, the researcher, who should use your imagination to illustrate data visually. Visual aids such as diagrams and photos are two dimensional and can be used with good effect. However, in some instances three dimensional visual artefacts, such as models, can also be used. Electronics offer good opportunities to collect and generate visual data, including human-computer interaction.

Visual representations. Not only can you use visual representations to communicate your research data in a report, you can also gather substantial data and obtain comprehension by consulting such representations. Visual representations can be figures, matrices, integrative diagrams, flow charts, graphs, and many more.

As clear as visual representations can be, so can they also mislead you to come to false interpretations and conclusions. It is not always easy to illustrate concepts graphically, with the result that such representations should as far as possible be augmented with clarifying narratives.

Visual data collection and the generation of visual material can include visual material generated by you or other participants in the research and visual material obtained from other sources. Both categories can include photographs, paintings, illustrations, models, clipart, demonstrations and many more.

Visual material can be used to invite responses from readers, to summarise, explain, inform, demonstrate, simplify or add to text or to illustrate systems, processes, etc. An important trend in the use of visual material is what is popularly called ‘participatory’ approaches. Especially electronic devices, such as desk top computers, cell phones, iPads, etc. enable you to capture discussions, demonstrations, presentations, events, and other images which can be used as sources of data or as additional information supporting a research report.

Visual material can, of course, also be the subject of investigation, for example the effect of erosion on farmland, student riots at universities, the daily routine in a correctional facility, oral presentations by lecturers, and many more. Simple observation can offer a way to answer diverse questions about the topic of the research. Video recordings are mostly used for this purpose. Electronic material, however, changes so rapidly that even the term ‘video recording’ is regarded as archaic by some. Videos are no longer used – even CDs are already outdated. People now record moving images on their cell phones, desktop computers, tablets, I Pads, etc. Chances are good that even more modern devices and processes might be in vogue by the time this article is published. Even so, the term ‘video’ seems to be still in use when referring to any recording of moving objects, including people.

Video recordings. Video can be used with good effect to capture and analyse action and interaction. A substantial range of insights and findings have been captured concerning the social organisation of activities within a broad range of everyday environments including the workplace, the home and more public settings such as universities, sport fields, classrooms, etc. In different ways, these studies have built on and developed the rich and diverse range of research concerned with language use and speech that arose over the last three decades or so, and have powerfully demonstrated the ways in which social actions and activities are accomplished in and through the visible, the material as well as the spoken word.

The growing interest in embodied action and multi-modal communication is reflected in the growing commitment to using video in naturalistic research throughout a range of disciplines, including sociology, organisation studies, applied linguistics, education, management and many more.

Video is well-suited to analyse naturally occurring activities. One of the most important contributions of video-based research has been to improve our understanding of education and training and the ways in which learning is accomplished. Lessons and demonstrations are captured on video, thereby substantially multiplying the number of students who benefit from the lectures and demonstrations. Furthermore, researchers can watch the videos any time they want in their offices or homes, which gives them substantial freedom of movement, which, in turn, renders the research process much more effective and efficient.

The use of graphics to clarify spatial relationships is a powerful source of data that can often be used in visual format to report on events, processes and phenomena. A suitable map of a study area may orient readers better than any narrative description of the area. Maps are especially valuable when a qualitative study focuses on a geographic area, such as a place where a natural disaster occurred, a riot took place, and many more.

Maps. Maps can be used even where the focus of your study is not on a geographic area. For example, maps can be used in studies of immigrant movement, including where they come from, the routes that they follow and where they settle. The three types of maps that are often used in research are situational maps, social world/arena maps and positional maps.

Situational maps show the layout of major human, nonhuman, discursive and other elements in the research situation of inquiry and provoke analysis of relations among them.

Social world/arena maps show the layout of the collective role players, key nonhuman elements and the arena(s) of commitment and discourse within which they are engaged in ongoing negotiations, i.e. the meso level interpretations of a situation.

Positional maps show the layout of the major positions taken and not taken in the data, compared to particular variables in terms of which they may differ, including concern and controversy around issues in the situation of enquiry.

Photographs and reproductions. Photographs can be anything of which one can take a photo that is relevant to your research. It may be a place of interest to your study, an event, an individual, even yourself. Thanks to electronics you can take as many photos as you like and then use only the best and most relevant ones in your research. You can often take photos on the spur of the moment with your cell phone.

Reproductions collected during your fieldwork can be reproductions of photographs, but also of works of art, drawings, artefacts, etc. Photographs are often taken by you while reproductions are mostly the work of other people.

Summary

Qualitative data collection methods imply that the collected data will be processes and analysed without making use of statistics or other numerical procedures.

Both etic and emic observation are used in qualitative data collection.

Findings gained from data collected through observation can be corroborated and supplemented by other methods, for example literature study and interviews.

Collected data are analysed inductively to generate findings.

Artefacts are used to reveal historical or current social processes, meaning and values of events and phenomena.

Graphics include any kind of visual data other than artefacts.

You, as the researcher, can and should create visual data.

Visual data include visual representations, visual recordings, maps, etc.

Visual material can be used for the collection of a vast variety of purposes, for example to summarise, explain, illustrate, etc.

Visual material can also be the subject of investigation.

Video recordings and more recent electronic recordings of movement can be used to capture and analyse action and interaction.

Maps can be used in studies of immigrant movements, historical developments, military operations, the spread or contraction of disease, etc.

Photographs can facilitate the research on any visual objects, events or phenomena.

Close

I hope you can now already see the exciting and endless opportunities for research that data collection methods offer.

It is all about imagination, innovation and creativity.

This is where you can make your research an adventure full of surprises and fun.

You can even provide your study leader with a thesis or dissertation that will blow them away.

Enjoy your studies.

Thank you.

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ARTICLE 75: Research Methods for Ph. D. and Master’s Degree Studies: Quantitative Data Collection Methods

2nd Nov 2020 No Comments

Written by Dr. Hannes Nel

Hello, I am Hannes Nel and I will discuss quantitative data collection methods in this video.

It is not possible to deal with all the intricacies and formula that natural scientists use to process data for research purposes.

Most, if not all, dedicated computer programmes use five basic calculations to analyse data, namely the mean, standard deviation, regression analysis, sample size determination and hypothesis testing.

It would not be possible to discuss even a fraction of all the computer programmes that are available for data analysis.

And I do not think there are many researchers who know and use many such software.

The data collection methods that I discuss can also be used with qualitative research.

But then the data will be processed and analysed without making use of statistics.

Or the statistical analysis will be simple enough so that dedicated computer software will not be needed.

Quantitative research deals with statistical and other numerical data collection methods and requires the processing of data which can require the use of dedicated computer software. Structured observation, questionnaires, paper and pencil tests, and alternative assessment are some of the more popular and simple quantitative data collection methods which can be used in combination with qualitative research.

Structured observation. In structured observation the researcher directly observes some phenomenon, and then systematically records the resulting observations. The observer doing research on, for example, guidance and support provided to students can record how many times students ask questions, how long the lecturer took to respond to the questions, etc. It is used to record predetermined categories of behaviour.

Questionnaires. Questionnaires encompass a variety of instruments in which the subject responds to written questions to elicit reactions, beliefs, and attitudes. You choose or construct a set of appropriate questions and ask the subjects to answer them, usually in a form that asks the subject to check the response. This is a common technique for collecting data in most research methods, and most survey research uses questionnaires.

Questionnaires are not necessarily easier than other techniques and should be employed carefully. Even so, questionnaires are one of the most widely used qualitative research techniques. The idea of formulating precise written questions, for those opinions or experiences you are interested in, seems an obvious method to use. However, if the questionnaire is not correctly developed you might not obtain the data that you need or people might not respond to it and you might need to start all over again.

There are several ways in which questionnaires can be administered. They can be sent by post to the intended respondents, who are then expected to complete and return them. They can be administered over the telephone or face to face. You can personally deliver them or have them delivered and collect them once they have been completed. You can also ‘facilitate’ the process of completing the questionnaires so that you can answer questions and collect the completed questionnaires afterwards. You can also send and receive them by email. Questionnaires can also be placed on a web site where people can complete them voluntarily.

Each of these methods has advantages and disadvantages. Face-to-face surveys may get a better response rate, but are more time consuming for you as the researcher. Postal and email surveys are likely to have lower response rates, and possibly poorer answers because the respondent has no one available to answer any queries; but they may allow a larger number of people to be surveyed.

The following are examples of the nine basic question types that you can use in your questionnaire:

1. Quantity or information: How many years’ experience do you have in conducting assessment of learner performance? ……………………………….

2. Category: In what capacity are you involved in facilitating learning?

Full-time

Part-time

Occasional

3. List or multiple-choice: Do you regard workplace-learning as any of the following?

A waste of time

Not learning at all

It improves productivity

It promotes lifelong learning

Other – please specify: ……………………………………………………………………..

4. Scale: How important is quality assurance for university education?

Indispensable

Very important

Not sure

Not very important

A waste of time

5. Ranking: What do you see as the main purpose of your studies? Please rank the following starting with 6 for the most important to 1 for the least important.

Personal development

Subject interest

Career advancement

Recreation

Intellectual stimulation

Social interaction

Other – please specify: ………………………………………………………………….

6. Complex grid or table: How would you rank the benefits of your studies for each of the following? Please rank each item.

Positive Neutral Negative Very negative

For you

For your family

For your employer

For the country

For your friends

7. Open-ended questions: Please give me your opinion of the social life at your university in one short paragraph.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

8. Closed-ended questions: Do you think the lecturers who teach you are sufficiently qualified? (The answer should only be “yes” or “no”.)

…………………………………

9. A combination of question types. You can, for example, ask respondents for their opinion on an issue, inviting a choice between either “yes” or “no”, followed by a multiple-choice question in which options to choose from are given. Here is an example:

Question 1: Do you think the lecturers (at the university where you study) provides enough guidance and support to students? (yes or no)

Question 2: How can the guidance and support provided to students be improved?

Appoint more suitably qualified psychologists.
Schedule special classes where students may ask questions on study problems that they encounter.
Insist that lecturers allow each student a one-hour private appointment per month to discuss personal study challenges.
Task a post-graduate student to do research on student guidance and support at the university.

Paper and pencil tests. In a paper and pencil test the respondent is asked a series of questions that are objectively scored. Typical items include multiple-choice, matching item, true-false, and completion. The resulting test scores are used as data. Because these types of tests are well established and have strong technical qualities, they are often used in educational research as a measure of student performance.

Alternative assessment. Alternative assessments are measures of performance that require the demonstration of a skill or proficiency by having the respondent create, produce, or do something. One type of alternative assessment is performance-based, such as making a speech, writing a paper, making a musical presentation, demonstrations, athletic performance, and other projects. Portfolios constitute another type of alternative assessment. Many alternative assessments are authentic, reflecting real-life problems and contexts. While alternative assessments have become popular in recent years, as a technique to use in research these approaches are fraught with technical difficulties. This is primarily because of the subjective nature of the scoring of the performance or product.

Summary

Structured observation entails observing a phenomenon.

Relevant observations are systematically recorded.

Conclusions can be made from recorded observations.

Questionnaires can be used to collect responses to written questions.

Questionnaires can be distributed by post, electronically or be delivered to the members of the target group for the research.

Face-to-face surveys mostly achieve better response rates than surveys by post or electronically.

There are nine basic question types that you can use in questionnaires. They are:

Quantity or information.
Categories.
List or multiple-choice.
Scale.
Ranking.
Complex grid or table.
Open-ended questions.
Closed-ended questions.
A combination of question types.

In a paper and pencil test the respondent is asked a series of questions that are objectively scored.

Alternative assessments evaluate the demonstration of skills or proficiency.

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