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ARTICLE 19: The Scope of a Thesis or Dissertation

18th Aug 2020 No Comments

Written by Dr. Hannes Nel

Introduction

Hello, my name is Hannes Nel and I will discuss The Scope for a thesis or dissertation in this video.

Failure to limit the research problem/research question or hypothesis from the start can lead to you collecting a mass of information, much of which you will not be able to use.

Research design is typically a funnel-shaped process.

Although you should limit the scope of your research project, you should still collect a good amount of data.

Consequently, your initial scope will be broad. You will need to narrow this down as you progress with your research.

You need to eliminate irrelevant data while paying more attention to valid and valuable data.

Also, make sure that you collect relevant data.

To collect relevant data, you will need to use the most effective and efficient data collection methods and ask the right questions.

The scope of your research will also be influenced by how widely shared across the population for your research the knowledge, beliefs, behavior, interests and other data relevant to your research are.

The more data is shared in the population for your research, the more likely it is that people will respond the same to your questions.

Responses to more specific and personal issues, for example, unique events, individual experiences, or personal opinions will probably be more varied.

Although the scope for research in natural science will be focused on the purpose of your research, you will mostly also have a population, and a sample, upon which you will test your hypothesis.

Also, in natural science, the need for generalization will be much more pronounced than in the case of many social research projects.

The research scope is often determined by time constraints and the resources that you have available.

The more time and funds you have at your disposal, the more sophisticated data collection tools can you use.

And in natural science projects, you will probably need to do experiments as well.

The more time and funds you have available for research, the more and better quality data can you collect.

This does not mean that lots of time and resources are a precondition for doing quality research, especially for study purposes.

Creative researchers mostly manage to find the data that they need even with limited time and resources at their disposal.

Do not be too ambitious and select a topic that is too broad for university research purposes.

Students often choose a too broad scope for their research because they are concerned that they will not be able to write an “acceptable” number of pages.

After some initial reading, most students find that they have too much to write, and they do not want to lose any of the data that took them so much time and effort to collect.

That is why time spent on deciding on a realistic scope before your start doing research can make your work much easier and more efficient.

You will probably need to reduce the number of pages of your thesis or dissertation. Do not do this randomly. You must maintain the flow of your evidence and arguments.

Summary

You should collect a good amount of relevant data.

Start by collecting too much data rather than too little.

Refine the data that you collected for relevance and quality.

The availability of time and resources will largely determine how wide the scope for your research can be and how much data you will be able to collect.

Keep the scope of your research manageable, regardless of how much time and resources you have.

Planning your research well in advance will save you time and money.

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ARTICLE 18: How to Establish Objectives for Ph. D. or Masters Degree Research

16th Aug 2020 No Comments

Written by Dr. Hannes Nel

Introduction

Almost all professors at universities will tell you that you are expected to develop new knowledge, theories, processes, medication, etc. on the doctoral level.

This would be ideal. However, creating and adding value to the existing knowledge and skills often take much longer than it would take to do research for a Ph. D.

Sometimes scientists stumble upon new knowledge, new inventions, new medicines or processes purely by chance.

Mostly, however, new discoveries require systematic research and gradual progress over a long period.

The challenge is somewhat less in the case of a thesis for a master’s degree.

Even though you will not be required to develop new knowledge, theories, processes, etc. on master’s degree level, you will still need to conduct scientific research.

Therefore, study leaders and universities sometimes accept a dissertation or thesis because the students showed that they can do academic research on the postgraduate level.

Often universities accept a dissertation or thesis because they can see the potential of the student to conduct further research, perhaps as part of a research team of the university.

It is then that the student might develop something new.

Even though master’s degree students are not required to develop new knowledge and theory, they should still follow the research steps that I describe here to analyze and gain an understanding of complex theory, philosophy and practice.

Objectives for Ph. D. Research

Most students start with an idea, from which they will develop a topic, a title, a purpose, objectives and a research question, problem statement or hypothesis.

It would not be impossible to start at any point in this circle, depending on what you have been given or have identified.

These five elements are closely linked to your choice of research approach, research methods, paradigmatic approach, data collection methods, sampling methods, and data collection instruments.

The verb that you choose for your research objectives will largely determine which research approach you will follow.

The following are examples of possible research objectives:

To measure something.

You will probably follow a quantitative approach when measuring something.

The examples of things that need to be measured are endless.

Examples include rainfall, changes in temperature over a period and at different places, lengths, weights, etc.

To test something.

You will probably also follow a quantitative approach when testing something.

Medication can be tested, how people respond to treatment, the strength of concrete, the performance of people in many different fields, how people respond to certain impulses, events, etc.

To calculate something.

You will probably follow a quantitative approach when doing calculations.

Finances are often calculated for many different purposes.

Population numbers are counted, animal species after widespread fires in Australia, people who contracted and perhaps even perished because of the COVID-19 virus are examples of such calculations.

To compare.

You will most likely follow a quantitative approach to compare people, artefacts, etc.

Any competition has an element of comparison in it.

The performance of countries in almost any field can be compared.

Anything that can be measured can be compared to different places, times, etc.

To understand a real-world problem.

Understanding real-world problems mostly require following a qualitative approach.

It is used to understand any threat to the well-being and survival of people.

To build knowledge and theory.

Building knowledge and theory will mostly require making use of a qualitative approach.

It is guided by existing knowledge and theory to improve the existing knowledge and theory.

To develop interventions or programmes.

You will probably follow a qualitative approach to develop interventions or programmes.

Development might need to be measured, though.

To evaluate something.

Evaluation can require a quantitative or qualitative research approach.

Performance in a wide variety of fields is often evaluated to identify deficiencies and to achieve improvement.

Products, interventions, programmes, processes, conduct, etc. need to be evaluated.

Measuring quality is an example of this.

To inform a larger study.

Informing a larger study will mostly require a qualitative approach.

The larger study will probably be broken down into several small projects, each with its own objectives.

To identify.

Identifying people or phenomena will mostly require making use of a qualitative approach.

To explore.

Exploration will mostly be done through a qualitative approach.

Exploring phenomena or events is pretty much like a detective who would seek answers or causes of events.

To describe.

You will use a qualitative approach to describe something.

Here the biggest challenge is to achieve accuracy and validity.

To explain.

An explanation will require a qualitative approach.

You will need to delve deep into the thought processes of others.

You will also need to identify the causes of events or phenomena.

Summary

The purpose of your research will be the deciding factor if you should follow a quantitative or qualitative approach.

You will follow a quantitative approach if the achievement of your purpose will require statistical analysis and accurate evidence.

You will follow a qualitative approach if the achievement of your purpose will require descriptive work.

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ARTICLE 17: How to Find a Topic for Ph.D. or Master’s Degree Research

15th Aug 2020 No Comments

Written by Dr. Hannes Nel

Introduction

It is always advisable to identify a real need for improvement or new ideas that will require research.

The following are steps that you can take to find a research topic on the doctoral or master’s degree level:

Consider the research that you have already done.

Your thesis for a Master’s degree is a good starting point for further research.

It is probably something that you are interested in and have some good knowledge about.

Remember, if it is a Ph. D. that you are conducting research for, you will need to create new knowledge and skills.

Your own interests are a great source for finding a topic.

List your interests and rank them to find a topic that you are interested in.

Surf the internet for interesting topics.

Visit the library.

Consider current events.

Current news is probably important and already something that somebody else regarded as worth reporting on.

Discuss the news with friends and colleagues.

Listen to what they are afraid of, look forward to, etc.

Keep your eyes open and make a note of everyday observations.

Keep your eyes open and listen to what people talk about.

People often talk about their needs and fears.

Do not underestimate the value of your personal experiences.

Your personal experiences, challenges, disappointments and successes in life can be topics for research.

People often have similar experiences and they might need some assistance or guidance, which you can offer them.

Developing your research topic

You will probably need to develop a research topic even after you have found an idea that you like. Such an idea can be developed into a research topic by following seven steps:

Step 1: Select a general topic.

Sometimes somebody else might suggest a topic if you cannot find one.

A lecturer, a sponsor, a family member, a friend might suggest something.

It is not a good idea to choose and develop a topic that you know nothing about.

Step 2: List keywords to help you look for information about the topic.

Good keywords can save you lots of time and effort.

Keywords can generate new keywords.

Keywords can help you find more information on a topic on the internet, in a library or from a lecturer, family member or friend.

Step 3: Get an overview of the topic.

Improve and expand on the idea that you have.

In the beginning, you should collect anything that you can find on the topic of your research.

Do not throw away any information now already – you never know how your research might develop.

Information that does not look relevant now might turn out to be critically important later.

Besides the more you read about your topic the better will you understand it.

Step 4: Begin to focus the topic into something that you can cover well.

At some stage, you will need to narrow your research down to the important issues that relate to the purpose of the research.

Search for examples and important information – examples will help you with your fieldwork and information is necessary as a theoretical background.

Do not go for volume – focus on quality and relevance.

Step 5: Write a statement of purpose for the focused topic.

Your statement of purpose will guide you through your research.

Focus, focus, focus.

Your statement of purpose will motivate you, help you to formulate your problem statement, question or hypothesis, and help you to work systematically and efficiently.

Step 6: Create subtopic headings for the research.

Subtopics will help you organize your dissertation or thesis in such a manner that your arguments will flow smoothly toward the achievement of your purpose.

Keywords can often be used as subtopics.

You will probably change and delete subtopics as you progress with your research.

Step 7: Brainstorm questions about the focused topic.

Research teams often use brainstorming.

You can also do so, for example by organizing focus groups to discuss salient issues.

Summary

You can find a research topic from:

Your previous research.
Other people.
Your personal interest, experiences, observations.
The news.

Once you have decided on a topic, you will need to develop and refine it.

Formulate a purpose for your research.
Develop a research problem, research question or hypothesis.
Select keywords and use them to gather data.
Focus the topic to make your research viable.
Break your topic down further into subtopics.
Refine, restructure, add, delete.

You are now on your way with your research.

Remember to focus and to work in a spiral.

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ARTICLE 16: The Research Problem, Question or Hypothesis for a Ph. D. Dissertation or a Masters Degree thesis

14th Aug 2020 No Comments

Written by Dr. Hannes Nel

Introduction

Did you notice that some Ph. D. students formulate their research question, statement to impress rather than to explain?

A good research problem, question or hypothesis defines the focus of your research project.

The focus should, furthermore, be aimed at achieving the purpose of the research.

In the case of doctoral studies, the Postgraduate Committee will use the research problem, question or hypothesis to judge if your proposed research topic meets the requirements for research towards Ph. D.

You will need to narrow your research question, problem or hypothesis down to a project that you will be able to cope with, bearing in mind how much time and funds you have available for the research.

Keep in mind that research should always be the foundation for further research.

Let us refine and simplify an example of a research problem until we reach the point where it meets the requirements for viable research on the doctoral level.

What is the effect of global warming on social interaction?

A research question like this creates more questions than it solves.

It is vague and the effect of global warming on social interaction can be a multitude of possible things, for example, relationships in the classroom, at home, between married couples, between friends, clients versus salespeople, etc.
The effect of global warming on different continents, in different countries, different cultures, different seasons, etc. will probably not be the same.

Readers of your thesis or dissertation will probably ask: What is meant by social interaction?

You will need to explain and define the research question. However, even then it would be almost impossible to conclude generally applicable findings that will apply to the entire world and all people and times of the year.

Here is a second refinement of the research question:

What is the effect of global warming on the social interaction of people to work in metropolitan areas?

This research question already hints on possible economic value. It is limited to a specific type of living area and it would probably be possible to choose a representative sample for the research.

You should be careful of not formulating your research question in such a way that it renders your research subjective and biased.

For example, if you were to ask “Will global warming cause people working in metropolitan areas to lose interest in social interaction?” you might create the impression that you are of the opinion that global warming will cause people who work in metropolitan areas to lose interest in social interaction.

It might still be a workable problem to investigate, though. You can also reformulate your problem statement or question as a hypothesis, especially as the answer to your question might simply be “yes” or “no”. You might even be able to statistically prove your hypothesis as valid or not. Here you would probably use quantitative research and a technicist paradigmatic approach.

A hypothesis will be formulated somewhat differently from a research question or problem statement.

I will discuss more intricate examples of hypotheses in the videos on quantitative research methods.

You can avoid the dichotomous nature of this last example (the answer can only be “yes” or “no”) by formulating it something like this:

“What is the impact of global warming on the social interaction between people working in metropolitan areas?”

Regardless of how you formulate your research problem, question or hypothesis, you will still need to describe the context for your research.

The purpose of your research can also help to clarify your research question, problem or hypothesis.

The scope of your research can help you to know where to go, what to investigate and when to stop with your research.

Your research question, problem or hypothesis is not final if you did not submit your final dissertation or thesis yet.

However, keep in mind that it will become increasingly more difficult and riskier to change your research question, problem or hypothesis the longer you wait to do so.

Summary

A research question, statement or hypothesis gives you a good indication of which data you need to collect and which methods you will use to access and analyze your sources.

A well-articulated research question, statement or hypothesis provides you, your study leader and any other readers of your thesis or dissertation with valuable information about your research.

You need to explain the focus, purpose, scope and motivation for your research.

You also need to motivate your research question, problem or hypothesis clearly and objectively.

The rationale for your research question, statement or hypothesis can serve of evidence that your research project is viable.

You can change your research question, statement or hypothesis any time while you are still doing research. However, the longer you wait, the more incorrect data will you collect, and the more time will you waste on doing unnecessary work.

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ARTICLE 15: Creating a Draft for a Ph.D. Dissertation or a Masters Degree Thesis

13th Aug 2020 No Comments

Written by Dr. Hannes Nel

Introduction

In my previous article, I discussed writing a second chapter for your Ph. D. dissertation or master’s degree thesis.

It might sometimes be necessary to break the second chapter down into two or three chapters.

You will write many different versions for a draft thesis or dissertation, and you will continue reviewing what was probably just a structure in the beginning until you reach the point where you will have a final product.

But you need to start with the first draft.

The following seven steps will enable you to write a first draft.

Step 1: Make an outline of your headings

The outline should be an abbreviated picture of the parts of your dissertation or thesis.

You can use the outline as the scope of your dissertation, or perhaps your thesis if and when you need to defend your final submission.

The Table of Contents of your dissertation or thesis can serve as the outline.

Initially, you will start with just a framework. As you progress with your research, the framework will grow into your actual thesis or dissertation as well as the final table of contents for your dissertation or thesis.

The outline can help you prevent and identify flaws in the structure of the dissertation or thesis.

Step 2: Check your research statement, question or hypothesis

You will have written your research statement, question or hypothesis when you prepared your research proposal.

You can refocus the research statement, question or hypothesis at any point while writing your thesis or dissertation, if necessary.

You can also refocus it as often as you wish, although you should not do this indiscriminately.

Refocusing your research problem, question or hypothesis would be necessary if you were too ambitious when you decided on the scope for your research.

You will need to refocus your research problem, question or hypothesis if you run out of time.

However, your study leader will not take kindly to you running out of time if you dragged your feet.

Step 3: Write the body of your dissertation or thesis from your notes

This is where you will ensure that what you write flows logically.

You should check if all your ideas, arguments, evidence, figures and tables flow logically, much like the narrative for a novel.

In the old days, we used notecards for this.

Now we have computers that make the work much easier.

Step 4: Check that you cite all the information that you quoted from other sources with parenthetical citations

Parenthetical citations are where you recognize the authors of the text, statistics, etc. that you use in your dissertation or thesis.

You must cite your sources when using the following kinds of material, in whole or in part:

Direct quotations.
Paraphrased and reconstructed quotations. (Quotations of which you changed the original wording somewhat.)
Statistical data.
Images made by someone else.
Song lyrics.
Original ideas that belong to someone else.

I will discuss referencing methods in a future article.

Step 5: Write your introduction

The introduction normally has two parts:

A general introduction to the topic of your research.
Your research statement.

Step 6: Write your conclusions

You will write your conclusions after you have done the literature study and fieldwork.

Through the conclusions you should show:

The reader that the work is complete and well done.
That the research project has been brought to a logical and realistic end.
That you have made a positive contribution to the field of your study.

You can restate your research problem, question or hypothesis here.

You can also summarize your main points of evidence here.

Step 7: Create a title page

You can prepare the title page at any stage while doing your research and writing your report.

Here you must prepare the title page according to the format and requirements of the university or faculty where you study.

Reviewing your draft dissertation or thesis

You can and probably will submit chapters or perhaps just sections that your study leader would like to see from time to time.

However, do not submit what you might regard as a final product unless you feel proud of the work that you did.

You should feel confident that your study leader will be satisfied with your work, so much so that you are looking forward to his or her feedback.

And even though you might expect to be showered with praise, you need to realize that the opposite might still happen. Be prepared for what you might regard as cruel, unfair and unnecessary criticism.

This is when you will need to show character. Now is the time when you will need to show that you can persevere.

Do not blame your study leader for not being as impressed with your work as you are. Listen, or read, the feedback carefully and give yourself time to think about it, to absorb it and to decide how you can benefit from the disappointment.

You can and should pre-empt negative feedback by evaluating and correcting your work even before your study leader tells you to do so.

Here are nine questions that you can ask of your work to find opportunities for improvement:

Is it necessary to introduce new material, data, ideas and thinking? If yes, then find the additional content and include it.
Did you include arguments or information in your dissertation or thesis that adds no value because it is not relevant to the purpose of your research? If so, remove such padding from your report.
Is there data or arguments that you included early in your report that later proved to be outdated or irrelevant?
Is there more recent and relevant data or arguments in a later chapter or chapters? Remove obsolete data and arguments.
Can you find any cognitive mistakes in any of your arguments, conclusions, assumptions or recommendations? If so, remove the errors or correct them.
Is the structure of your chapters or sections in chapters erratic? Good software, such as ATLAS.Ti can often solve the problem. Sometimes logical thinking can also do wonders for the flow of your report.
Did you respond negatively, aggressively or immaturely to feedback from your study leader, assistant study leader or perhaps even one or more external examiners? Apologize and thank them for their assistance. Correct your errors and inform them how you used their feedback to improve your work.
Did you repeat theoretical data, arguments, etc. in your dissertation or thesis? Even simple office software, like Microsoft Word, can find the repetition of sentences if you suspect that you repeated a statement and “ask” the software to find it.
Did you, at any stage while writing your dissertation or thesis, use a research method or paradigm incorrectly? It can happen that you “drifted” from one research method or paradigm to different, more suitable ones. This is not always wrong, but if the research methods or paradigmatic approaches contradict one another you will need to correct the error.

Probably all research topics on the doctoral level are of such a nature that the perfectionist will never be satisfied with the report. There will always be something that needs improvement.

You must draw the line somewhere, even if the temptation to just do this and that more might be strong.

Summary

The structure that you will prepare when you start with your research is already a first draft.

You can use the seven steps that I discussed to prepare your first draft.

You will end up writing and saving many versions of your dissertation or thesis until you reach the point where you are satisfied that you have achieved the purpose of your research project.

You can and should review and improve your draft report intuitively by correcting flaws when you identify them.

You can improve your product further by asking and answering the nine questions that I discussed.

Do not become trapped in a never-ending process of review and further research.

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ARTICLE 14: How to Write the Second Plus Chapters of your Thesis or Dissertation.

12th Aug 2020 No Comments

Written by Dr. Hannes Nel

Introduction

I will discuss chapters 2, 3 and 4 as one unit in this article because they belong together.

The literature review can be more than one chapter, depending on the topic of your research and the amount of theory that is needed.

You can, for example, have a chapter on the literature study that you did in preparation for the oral presentation of your research proposal and a second chapter on the literature study that you did when you did additional literature study after your proposal was accepted and you embarked on the real research.

You could also have explained the research approach for your study proposal in your first chapter already.

Remember that you will not prepare or present a research proposal on the master’s degree level.

Also, the layout of your thesis can be less structured than the layout for a dissertation.

However, it would be a good idea to follow the layout for a dissertation when you write a thesis for two reasons:

Firstly, it is a structure that has been proven to facilitate scientific research.
Secondly, it is a good opportunity for you to practice doing structured research. After all, you will embark on doctoral studies after having obtained a master’s degree, not so?

You can also explain the research methods that you used for the initial literature study as part of Chapter 2 and have a separate chapter dealing with the literature study and practical data collection processes as a third chapter.

Chapter 1 can deal with the context for your study and some of the contents of your oral presentation, or it can deal with the context for your study only.

You can explain your research approach for the literature study and field research in the second chapter. Alternatively, chapter 2 can deal with just the literature study for your oral presentation. You can also explain your research approach for the literature study in preparation for your oral presentation as well as the literature study after your research proposal has been accepted in chapter 2.

You can discuss the fieldwork that you did in Chapter 3 as a first or third option. As a second option, you can discuss your literature study as well as fieldwork in chapter 3 if you did not discuss your literature study in chapter 2 already.

In essence, you will need to describe your research approach for the literature study prior to presenting your research proposal, the theoretical content that you will research after your research proposal has been approved and the fieldwork that you will do.

You should identify as much as possible theoretical information on similar research that was previously done, knowledge captured in books and other sources of information and related knowledge that might be of value for your research.

Reasons why you will need to study literature:

To prepare for an oral presentation of your research proposal.
To familiarize yourself with the knowledge and to determine if it relates to your research.
To dispel myths about the field of study.
To explain competing conceptual frameworks.
To clarify the focus of your research.
To justify your assumptions.

You should satisfy the following questions in your literature review:

Are there sources relevant to the topic of your research?
If there are sources, what do they say about the nature and the development of the topic? (Ontology and epistemology.)
How are the issues researched in the existing literature?
How detail and complete are the literature on the topic?

(Are the points made in the literature elicited and synthesized, or just paraphrased?)

How does the literature interpret the concepts and issues on the topic?
Does the review clearly indicate when sources are being quoted? (Is it the work of the writers or did they borrow it from somebody else?)
Are sources adequately referenced?
Do you agree with the existing literature on the topic?

You will need to summarise the existing theory about the topic as a last section of the chapter or chapters.

If your study is just a literature study – you will move on to conclusions and recommendations at the end of this chapter.

That would mean that you will not need to do any fieldwork or experiments.

Summary

It is essential to do as much literature study as you possibly can for two main reasons:

To prepare for your oral study proposal. This, of course, applies to the doctoral level.
To serve as the foundation of the research that you will embark on.

Preparing this chapter or chapters might require many hours of hard work.

This will enable you to plan your research properly.

Close

Logically I should discuss doing fieldwork as a next chapter, followed by a recommended solution, and then the synthesis and evaluation of the study.

However, there are so many possible research methods, data collection methods and methods to analyse data that I will have to discuss all of them one by one.

In addition, there are a host of other issues, for example, the paradigms, ontology, epistemology, etc. that you should be able to use in the last two or three chapters of your thesis or dissertation.

In a way, this is a kind of literature study of the concepts that you need to be familiar with before you will be able to conduct practical research.

Therefore, I will discuss creating a draft thesis or dissertation in my next post.

Let me know if you have any issues that you need clarity on urgently. From this point onwards it is not critically important that we stick to a set sequence in which to discuss further issues.

I can easily interrupt my planned articles to discuss urgent questions first.

Good luck with your studies.

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ARTICLE 13: How to Write the First Chapter of Your Thesis or Dissertation.

11th Aug 2020 No Comments

Written by Dr. Hannes Nel

Introduction

Most universities will allow you to choose a name for your first chapter.

It can simply be “Introduction”.

You can also choose a more descriptive name of the contents of the chapter, for example, “Contextualising the Study.”

Some universities might even allow you to insert a Preface before your first chapter.

You should check with the university first before you add a separate preface to your thesis or dissertation.

I will share a few thoughts on the preface near the end of this post for the sake of clarity.

Each chapter in your thesis or dissertation should have its own introduction, but that is not what I will discuss here, so don’t get confused.

Writing the first chapter is the launchpad for writing a thesis or dissertation.

It points the writing process in the direction it should go and lay out what your research project should achieve.

The following are possible headings for your first chapter:

Introduction. It might be confusing if you include an introduction to a chapter called “Introduction”, but that should not be a serious problem.

You can discuss the following issues in the introduction:

Your problem statement, problem question or hypothesis.
Clarify the problem statement, question or hypothesis.
Background information on the field in which the study will be conducted.
You should narrow the wider scope (the background information) down to a viable target group or target area.
Explain why the problem or hypothesis is important.
Introduce and develop the topic for your research.
Introduce the title for your thesis or dissertation.
Statement of objectives
1. Break the purpose down into objectives and objectives into sub-objectives or tasks.
1. This breakdown can be useful when you need to prepare questions for interviews or questionnaires that you intend to send to members of your target group.
Definition of related concepts
1. Concepts and words are often understood and used differently by different academics.
1. It will often be impossible to determine what the right meanings are.
1. Therefore, do your homework to determine as accurately as you possibly can what the concepts and words that you will use mean and then explain how you will use them.
The motivation for the study
1. You need to explain why you wish to investigate the problem of your choice.
Current knowledge of the problem
1. Most universities will not even allow you to enroll for doctoral or master studies if you cannot show that you have enough prior knowledge of the topic of your research.
Potential benefits of the research
1. You need to explain who will benefit from your research as well as how they will benefit.
1. This can be integrated with your motivation for the study.
Ethical issues
1. You need to conduct your research and write your report in a manner that will be acceptable to any reasonable person and that does not transgress any legislation, rules or regulations.
1. The university will require you to confirm in writing that this is the case.
The structure of your study
1. The structure of your research will depend on the university requirements, the research approach, research methods, paradigms, data collection methods and data analysis methods that you will use.
1. Your personal style will also play a role.
Summary of Chapter 1
1. Each of your chapters needs to have an introduction and a summary.
1. You can add conclusions and recommendations that you gained from the chapter here.
1. Cutting and pasting sections from the body of the chapter is not a summary – it is an extract.
1. The summary should not contain new information.
1. It will, therefore, be unlikely that you will acknowledge sources in the summary.
1. You should summarise the chapter in such a way that all the important facts and arguments are given in a concise manner.

The preface

Some universities will allow you to include a preface before your first chapter.

You will probably only write the preface after the thesis or dissertation has been completed.

Or you can write the preface while you are writing the rest of your report.

A preface is usually a combination of disparate elements, necessary for the clarification of aspects of the work, but not necessarily concerned with the development of the argument.

Some claim that a good preface consists of three distinct parts – a general presentation of the research problem, the purpose of the research, and stating your position in terms of your capacity and limitations to do the research.

All of this can also be included in the first chapter.

Be careful of not using the preface to rationalize.

Do not use the preface to make excuses for not submitting quality work. If that is the case, no preface can save you – your study leader and external examiners will see that your work is not up to standard.

You may wish or need to supply information on the historical or literary background of your research topic, intellectual climate and biographical material relevant to a fuller understanding and appreciation of the research material.

Do not use the preface to put the blame for your challenges on your family, your employer, study leader, the university, the world.

Summary

The first chapter of your thesis or dissertation prepares the reader for the scientific argumentation and evaluation of the information that you will gather and analyse.

You should use the first chapter to contextualise your study.

It explains the importance of your research topic, how you will investigate the problem or hypothesis that you formulated, the area and target group for your research and what your research project should achieve.

Although you will need to show what you expect to achieve, you need to guard against showing that you have already decided what the results of your research will be.

You need to be objective and conduct research with an open mind.

Some universities will allow you to include a preface before your first chapter. The best way to write a preface is to write it while you write your thesis or dissertation.

Go back to the preface when you think of something that you desperately need to write but that does not fit into the structure and layout of your thesis or dissertation.

Do not use the preface for anything that might damage your end-product.

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ARTICLE 12: How to prepare an Abstract for a Ph. D. Dissertation.

10th Aug 2020 No Comments

Written by Dr. Hannes Nel

Introduction

Although one of the shortest sections in your dissertation, the abstract is also one of the most important sections.

The abstract is sometimes also called the synopsis or summary.

It is like an executive summary of a business report.

The purpose of the abstract is to enable interested readers to grasp the salient elements of the dissertation without having to read the whole report.

The abstract is a mandatory section of your dissertation and should be short and informative. Stakeholders in your research will read the abstract to get a broad understanding of your research. Obviously, a good abstract will attract attention and it might even improve your chances of landing a good job, especially at the university where you study.

You will probably not be required to prepare an abstract for a thesis on the master’s degree level.

The abstract should cover the following:

The problem that was researched.
Your main argument or arguments.
The nature of the research.
The context of the research.
The research methods and procedures that you used.
Your main findings, conclusions and recommendations.

Some universities will require you to cover everything in not more than 300 words – that is one A4 page.

Obviously, the abstract can only be written once you have completed your research and wrote your dissertation.

It should appear directly after the table of contents, authentication and acknowledgments.

The abstract should end with a list of not more than ten keywords.

Abstracts are often published in specialist journals.

Here is an example of the structure (headings that you can use in your abstract):

Background to the study.
Definition of the research problem, research question or hypothesis.
Research design.
A title that is the same as or like the title of your dissertation.
Conclusion or conclusions.

I mostly use my own book on research methodology as a pivotal source for writing articles. However, I found the hints below on how to write a good abstract in an article written by Dr. Max Lempriere. I give recognition to the source at the end of the article.

The following hints should help you to write a good abstract:

Use short and clear sentences.
Do not cite references.
Use keywords from your dissertation.
Do not use ambiguous words and complex terminology.
Focus on just four or five essential points, concepts, or findings.
Communicate economically. Make sure that each sentence is relevant and necessary.
Avoid lengthy background information.
Do not deviate from the contents or arguments of your dissertation.

Summary

The abstract should briefly explain the following:

What you did – the topic of your research.
How you did it – the methodology that you used.
What you found out – the results of your research.
What the significance of the research was – your conclusions and recommendations.

Additional reference: Lempriere, M. 12 February 2019. What is a dissertation abstract and how do I write one for my PhD?

https://thephdproofreaders.com/how-to-write-an-abstract-for-your-phd-thesis/

Accessed on 25/06/2020

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ARTICLE 11: The Table of Contents of your Thesis or dissertation

9th Aug 2020 No Comments

Written by Dr. Hannes Nel

Introduction

I discuss the layout of a table of contents for a thesis or dissertation in this article. In the beginning, the table of contents will be more a structure for a table of contents than a final one.

You will probably have decided which chapters to include in your report, but you will have only one or two lower-level headings. Also, you might need to add a small number of chapters as you progress with your research.

The table of contents should follow directly after the authentication of your work.

Once you have written your thesis or dissertation, you will probably delete the provisional structure for a table of content and replace it with the chapters, headings and sub-headings of your final thesis or dissertation. Keep in mind that your table of contents must not differ from the chapters, headings and sub-headings in your thesis or dissertation.

At the end of your table of contents, you should also have the references that you consulted, a list of figures and a list of tables.

Universities are mostly flexible about the structure of a table of contents for a thesis on the master’s degree level. There are certain chapters and topics that you must cover in the dissertation for a Ph. D.

Also, keep in mind that the thesis for a master’s degree is a good opportunity to practice for when you will write the dissertation for a Ph. D. It will not be wrong to follow the structure of a dissertation when writing the report on the master’s degree level.

Here is a list of the most basic headings that most universities will expect you to discuss in your dissertation:

Title page.
Confirmation of authenticity.
Acknowledgments.
Abstract.
Chapter 1: Contextualising the Study.
Chapter 2: Research Methodology.
Chapter 3: Theoretical Background.
Chapter 4: Data Collection and Analysis.
Chapter 5: Synthesis and Evaluation of the Study.
References.
List of Figures.
List of Tables.

The title page. I already discussed the title page, sometimes also called the cover page, in a previous article (article 5). Just take note that this is where it will fit into your thesis or dissertation.

Confirmation of authenticity. You will be required by the university to confirm that the contents of your thesis or dissertation are your own. Most universities, if not all, use a standard format for such confirmation.

Here is an example:

“I, (your full names and surname) declare that (the title of your thesis or dissertation) is my own work and that all the sources that I have used or quoted have been indicated and acknowledged by means of complete references.

(Your signature)

…………………………………”

Acknowledgments. Acknowledgments are a matter of choice.

However, it is only good manners to thank people who helped you with your research.

The acknowledgment has real value for your research, though.

It shows the readers of your report that you conducted your research in a systematic, ethical and disciplined manner.
It shows that you understand that research should not be done by one person only.

Abstract. The abstract is a mandatory summary of your thesis or dissertation. Not all universities will require you to write an abstract for a thesis. The abstract must be short – you will be required to summarise your thesis or dissertation in three or four pages.

Some readers, for example, your sponsors, might read only the abstract. Therefore, you will need to ensure that you cover all the questions that they might have.

Chapter 1: Contextualising the Study. Researchers making use of technicist research methods often claim that their findings and the principles and concepts that they develop are timeless and that it applies independently of context.

Even they, however, need to define the range and scope of their research – they will not be able to include the entire world, let alone the entire universe, in their research projects.

Chapter 2: Research Methodology. In this chapter you will discuss:

The research approach that you will use.
The research methods that you will use.
The paradigmatic approaches that you will follow.
The data collection methods that you will use.
How you will analyse the data that you collect.

Chapter 3: Theoretical Background. You will probably need to do a literature study as a foundation for your research. It would be rather difficult to jump into data collection and the analysis of data if you do not know what you should be looking for.

Chapter 4: Data Collection and Analysis. You already discussed the data collection and analysis methods that you will use in Chapter 2 of your dissertation. Here you will need to discuss the actual processes of data collection and analysis. This is a critically important chapter and might even be broken down into two or three separate chapters. It is from the contents of this chapter that you will come to conclusions and findings from which to develop a solution to the problem that you investigated.

Chapter 5: Synthesis and Evaluation of the Study. Chapter 5 will normally be your final chapter. This is where you will describe your solution. Depending on the purpose of your research and the research approach and methods that you used, you might develop a model, new knowledge, new methods to combat oil pollution at sea, new medication, and many more.

References. All sources that you consulted must be acknowledged in your thesis or dissertation.

Universities invariably have prescriptions in this regard, and you should abide by them.

I will discuss referencing formats in a future article.

List of Figures and List of Tables. The lists of figures and tables follow directly after the table of contents.

One can regard it as part of the table of contents.

The figure and table numbers in the lists must be the same as in the content of the thesis or dissertation.

Different universities have different requirements for the layout and format of the lists of figures and tables, although most are flexible in this respect.

Summary

Your provisional table of contents will probably be just a structure, consisting of chapters with no lower-level headings.

Your actual and final table of contents must align exactly with the contents of your thesis or dissertation.

I will discuss the abstract, chapters, references, lists of figures and tables in more detail in separate articles following on this one.

Good luck with your studies and stay healthy and safe.

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ARTICLE 10: The Relationship Between the Ph. D. or Master’s Degree Student and the Study Leader

8th Aug 2020 No Comments

Written by Dr. Hannes Nel

Introduction

Some universities will appoint a study leader for a prospective Ph.D. or master’s degree student only after the research proposal has been accepted.

The university will mostly appoint an academic who has specialised knowledge of the field in which you plan to do your research.

Appointing a professor who is an expert in the field of your study will not always be possible.

In practice, it often happens that a student approaches a professor for advice, which might include asking him or her to act as their study leader.

Regardless of how you and your study leader came together, the possibility of conflict always exists.

Some prospective students might not be aware of the challenges that they and their study leaders will face. We tend to be optimistic about new relationships and this is not limited to social relationships.

I need to emphasise, though, that the possibilities for conflict that I discuss in this post are exceptions.

Study leaders and their students are adults and most of them know how to interrelate and cooperate in a mature and objective manner.

It even happens that students and their study leaders become good friends.

Even so, you should be aware that things might go wrong, and the better you are prepared for the possibility, the better will you be able to deal with it, should it happen.

What can go wrong?

Here are some examples of what can go wrong between you and your study leader:

A study leader might decide early in the relationship that the student will not succeed just because they do not like each other.
A study leader might discriminate against the student based on race, gender, religion, gender orientation, appearance.
Even if the study leader does not discriminate, the student might accuse the study leader of discrimination.
It can happen that a study leader and student become emotionally or physically involved to the extent that it damages the quality of the research being done.
A study leader might make unacceptable advances towards a student.
A student can make advances at a study leader.

I don’t think “making advances” is necessarily a problem, but it is risky, especially if the attraction is not mutual or if the student uses it to obtain an undeserved good report.

Attempts at bribery and corruption are always possible.
Some of you might think of other possible obstacles.

Perhaps we should consider the duties and responsibilities of the parties to a study relationship first before we discuss ways in which to avoid or manage conflict.

The duties of a study leader

The prospective study leader often arranges for you, the student, to deliver a research proposal.
The study leader should act as an advisor on the structure and layout of the thesis or dissertation.
The study leader should also be able to assist you with the academic content of your research.
The study leader will also evaluate your work at intervals to which you will agree in advance.
The study leader will tell you when your dissertation or thesis is ready to be submitted.
Good study leaders make their expectations and rules for the project clear from the word go. Issues that you should agree on include:
How regularly you will meet.
The preferred method of communication. It will probably include emails, phone calls, meeting at the study leader’s office.
Mastery of methods and timelines for completing your research.
Some universities require doctoral students to do some lecturing. This needs to be cleared out with your study leader.
The monitoring, evaluation and reporting of progress.

What you as the student are responsible for

You need to focus on gaining new knowledge and skills and not just obtaining a Ph.D. or master’s degree certificate to add to your Curriculum Vitae and hang on your office wall.
The factual content, logical development of arguments and conclusions arrived at are your responsibility.
You will need to plan your research timetable. Your study leader might help you with this.
You will need to submit sections of your thesis or dissertation for evaluation in accordance with the timetable.
Changes suggested by you or your study leader might sometimes need to be submitted to the Postgraduate Committee for approval. (Some universities call it the Higher Degree Committee.) This will, for example, be the case if the changes imply changes to the purpose of your research or any other changes that might impact on the grounds upon which your study proposal was accepted.
You must show acceptable progress.
Your thesis or dissertation must be entirely your own work. You will be required to submit a statement to this effect when your work is completed.
You should discuss your progress, work and ideas with your study leader.
Nobody else may revise your work or do it for you.
Family and friends may help with proofreading.
It is always a good idea to have your thesis or dissertation language edited once it is completed.
Always ask your study leader for consent before you use external assistance with your research.
Keep in mind that you are probably not the study leader’s only postgraduate student and they have other work as well.
Do not ignore the study leader’s recommendations without discussing it with him or her first.
Permission must be obtained from the university before you may publish your thesis or dissertation or any part of it.

How to avoid, resolve or manage conflict

You and your study leader should have a set of shared expectations. That is why you need to get along well from the word go.

Both of you need to be aware of the constraints under which the other works and you should respect the fact that your study leader cannot spend too much time helping you.

The study leader should abide by the principles of adult learning. In brief, that means that:

Both the student and the study leader should accept responsibility for achieving success. (My study leader assured me that he would feel personally responsible if I do not successfully complete my doctoral studies.)
The study leader should create a desire in the student to achieve success. There are many ways to motivate a student. The study leader is also responsible for this.
The study leader and the student should make the study process attractive and fun. (My study leader and I regularly met for breakfast.)
Set the timeline against specific objectives to achieve before cut-off dates and manage it well.
Arrange reading and discussion sessions – the study leader should become actively involved in the student’s work but must not do the work for him or her. The study leader must also know when to allow the student to fly solo. (Diligent students invariably reach a point where they know more about the research topic than the study leader.)
The study leader should give guidance and support and must ensure that the student grows all the time.
Communicate as often as is realistically possible.
Students must accept responsibility for their own studies.
Mutual respect and good leadership can contribute substantially to the success of your studies.
The study leader should allow you to decide when you are ready to be evaluated. The timetable is an important management tool but not cast in concrete.

Summary

In summary:

Ph.D. and master’s degree students are adults and should be treated as such. However, they should also behave like adults.
The study leader may not do research or write any part of the thesis or dissertation for the student.
The study leader and student need to cooperate and together accept responsibility for successfully completing the study project.
If unavoidable it might become necessary for the student and study leader to sever their working relationship. The longer your take to take this radical step the more damage will it do to you and your study leader. Make sure that you know the policies and procedures of the university in this respect.

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