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ARTICLE 22: Research Methods for Ph. D. and Master’s Degree Studies
Written by Dr. Hannes Nel
Introduction
For my first doctoral study, I used a quantitative method, specifically CHAID supported with log-linear analysis and the CATMOD procedure. I chose this statistical method because I intended to send out many questionnaires. I had to ask for the assistance of the statisticians of the South African Council for Human Research to process my completed questionnaires.
Of course, I had to analyze the printouts of the processed data myself, else I would not have been able to come to any conclusions, findings or suggested solutions to my research problem.
In retrospect, I was walking on thin ice by making use of a statistical process about which I knew little.
Most of the methods that I will discuss should be used with qualitative research, although some should preferably be used with quantitative research.
All research methods can be used with a mixed approach.
Quantitative research methods are often dedicated to a specific scientific field of study rather than to a research method.
They sometimes also deviate from the generally accepted structure of a dissertation or thesis.
Research methods overlap with research paradigms and data collection methods. I will discuss them separately in future posts.
Mixed research methods
Research on the doctoral and master’s degree levels is becoming increasingly diverse and inclusive of both qualitative and quantitative research methods.
That is one of the reasons why a mixed-method approach is often followed.
Another reason why students decide to follow a mixed-method approach is that they feel that a combination provides a better understanding of a research problem than just focusing on qualitative or quantitative research methods.
Some students argue that a mixed-method enhances the validity and accuracy of data and the relevance and value of research findings.
The overarching premise is that the integration of two or more methods should facilitate the achievement of research objectives.
The decision of whether to integrate multiple methods depends on a combination of the research objectives, the resources and time available, your philosophical assumptions, your knowledge of research methods and your style or personal preferences. The people who will read your dissertation or thesis, especially your sponsor, but also your study leader, will also have an influence on which research method or methods you will use.
Different methods can be used as a form of triangulation in the hope that the findings from the different methods will corroborate one another.
Where will you discuss the research method that you will use?
You will probably discuss the research method that you will use in the second chapter of your dissertation or thesis.
You should explain:
- The method that you will use without trying to “teach” your study leader or other readers the intricacies of research. They probably know more about this than you.
- Why you chose the method.
- The reason why you chose the method.
You should also provide a detailed description of the components of the methodology of your choice. I will discuss the components of different research methods in future posts, seeing that they differ for different research methods.
The method that you choose must enable you to progress from a problem situation to a solution.
As far as possible you should do as much of the work as possible on your own.
For my second doctoral study, I used Atlas.Ti to code and analyze the data that I collected, mostly through interviewing. I used grounded theory, which is a qualitative research method. This time around I attended a short course on Atlas.Ti at the University of Guildford in Surrey before embarking on my studies, so that I could do all the work on my own.
Your method or methods can consist of a combination of literature study, models, arguments, mathematical proofs, surveys, case studies, experimentation, etc.
Did you notice that I am integrating research methods with data collection methods here?
The chapter on your research methods is mostly not difficult to write.
After all, you will have all the information from a book or books that you consulted.
Even better, your study leader can suggest a method that will work well with the nature of your research.
In addition to the purpose of your research, you should also consider your knowledge, experience, strong points, weak points and the data that you will have access to.
Don’t choose a quantitative method if you feel uncomfortable with calculations and statistics or if you do not have access to laboratories or other scientific equipment that you will need.
Don’t choose a qualitative method if you will not have access to or feel comfortable with people as your target group.
Summary
You will probably use quantitative research methods if you feel comfortable with figures and statistics, if you have access to the laboratories or other scientific equipment that you will need for your research and if the topic of your research is such that it can be investigated quantitatively.
You will probably use qualitative research methods if you feel comfortable when working with people when the topic of your research is suitable for qualitative research and if you need to solve immediate social or community problems.
You will probably use mixed research methods if there is a need to collect and analyze quantitative and qualitative data.
You can use more than one research method, and some of them might be quantitative while others are qualitative in nature. Different methods can be used as a form of triangulation, which should give you a measure of corroboration of your data and findings.
Keep in mind that research methods, paradigms, data collection methods and data analysis methods are all parts of the research process.
You will probably discuss the research method that you will follow in the second chapter of your dissertation or thesis. Although it is an important chapter, you should not go into too much detail.
ARTICLE 21: Consulting Sources of Information for Your Ph. D. or Masters Degree Research.
Written by Dr. Hannes Nel
Introduction
Hello, in case you did not see any of my previous videos, I am Hannes Nel.
In this video, I share some ideas about finding and selecting sources of information to use in your thesis or dissertation.
A suggested list of references is a valuable starting point for your research.
You should consult such references first if a list is available.
All professionally written books give recognition to sources which the writer of the book consulted.
You should be able to consult some of them.
It will not take you long to get to know which writers are recognized authorities in the field of your research.
Although you probably know this already.
Reading such books, articles, official documents, etc. can help you to find some good data and to learn how to discriminate between good and poor sources of information.
The same applies to internet sources.
Many academics still frown upon the use of internet sources.
I agree that much that is posted on the internet is probably not accurate and often also not valid information.
However, I do not agree that one should not use the internet to find information for research.
Many decades ago, people believed that all that was written in books, magazines and newspapers was true.
Some of you will remember how people used to defend their arguments by saying that “it was written in this or that newspaper”, or “that it is true because I heard it on the news.”
Now we know that the books, newspapers, magazines and the radio of back then did not always share the truth.
Regardless of which sources or what kind of sources of information you consult, you need to do whatever you can to verify the authenticity, validity and accuracy of the information that you are offered.
There are many ways in which you can evaluate and confirm the value of information.
An already old, but still effective way in which to do this is triangulation.
All academics do not agree about the value of triangulation as a method to corroborate the authenticity of data.
And yes, I admit that the truth can be dependent on context and time.
What is true now might not be true tomorrow or any other time in the past or the future.
What is true in one country or any other place will not necessarily be true in other countries or other places.
The truth as perceived by one person might not be true for somebody else.
You will see when we discuss the paradigms how differently different people can see the truth.
That is why I always define the information that I share in books, articles, the internet, etc. and I always respect the right of others to disagree with me.
Let’s get back to triangulation.
You need to know the ontology of triangulation to understand what it means in the context of academic research.
Triangulation has its origin in the science of survey.
Many decades ago, perhaps until some fifty years ago, surveyors used directors and later theodolites to find the coordinates for points on the ground. They would take bearings to known beacons on high points, add 180 degrees to obtain back bearings, and plot them on a map or aerial photo. The intersection of three such back bearings, measured from three beacons, would be the true position of the director or theodolite.
Such surveying was called triangulation because you had to use trigonometry to calculate the coordinates of the unknown point, which would be where you put the theodolite.
The rationale behind trigonometry is that the more bearings from known points you have, the more accurately can you calculate to coordinates of the unknown point.
In research, we use the same argument for confirming the accuracy of information. The more sources that contain the same information, the more likely it is that the information is accurate and true.
Of course, you can have more than three sources that corroborate information, but three are generally accepted as the minimum.
Obviously, this is not a foolproof technique. It can easily happen that several writers quote the same information that they obtained from a book or article written by somebody who shared false information, or from one another.
Triangulation does not relate to the source of information only.
Any kind of corroboration of the accuracy and validity of data and findings can be reinforced through triangulation.
Triangulation can refer to data, sources of information (which would include writers) researchers who come to the same findings and conclusions, theories that agree on arguments or points of view and different research methods that deliver the same or similar results.
Not all academics support triangulation as a way in which to corroborate data, findings, etc.
They too can have a point, because of differences in paradigmatic approaches.
It is a good idea to check how writers motivate and explain their arguments. Be careful of loose statements without any explanation or corroboration. Also, be careful of arguments that sound too good or bad to be true. Unlikely arguments are probably not true if they are not properly proven or supported or logically explained.
A simple way in which to find sources of data on the topic of your research is to find just one or a few relevant books on the library shelves or catalogs. There are often more books with similar content on the same shelve or in the same row.
A problem with books is that they become outdated rather fast. The same can be said about articles on the internet, though.
It is a healthy practice not to use books older than five years unless you know or can determine that the contents of the book or other sources of data is still accurate and relevant.
You will probably fall back on much older sources of information if the topic of your research deals with history.
Natural scientists will probably rely on statistics and other calculations for confirmation of accuracy. However, statistics can also be manipulated, as can laboratory tests.
Whatever sources you use, remember to give recognition to the originators.
Summary
When looking for sources of information, you should start with a list of references that the university, your study leader or any other expert whom you trust suggests.
See if you can find more sources from the books or other sources on the list.
Check the accuracy, validity and authenticity of the sources by looking for corroboration of the contents of the sources. Corroboration can be found through triangulation, seeking out writers with a known good reputation, and common sense.
Also, check how old the sources of information are. The older the sources are the more likely it is that the contents might be outdated and inaccurate.
Keep in mind that books, articles in magazines and newspapers and even official documentation can be just as false as internet sources.
ARTICLE 44: Research Methods for Ph. D. and Masters Degree Studies: Constructivism
Written by Dr Hannes Nel, D. Com, D. Phil
Introduction
One certainty about post-graduate research is that there is no guarantee that you will succeed.
Many students do not even start because they are afraid that they might fail.
And the uncertainty coupled with the fear of failure after you have done a lot of work causes many students to not even start.
Constructivism is a simple paradigm with lots of promise of success.
Although there is still no guarantee, you can at least embark on your studies in the knowledge that you will have a fair chance to show what you are capable of.
What is more attractive to an intelligent and creative researcher than the opportunity to use his or her mind to develop new knowledge and understanding?
The work will still be a challenge, but thanks to constructivism, not an insurmountable one.
Constructivism
Constructivism is a rather liberal paradigm, that allows the researcher to create new knowledge and understanding through cognitive reasoning.
It claims that people construct their own understanding and knowledge of the world, through experiencing things and reflecting on those experiences.
We reconcile new observations and experiences with our previous ideas and experiences.
This might change our perceptions, or the new information and experiences might be discarded.
How we respond to new information and experiences depends on how we process the data in our minds.
This means that we create our own knowledge by asking questions and exploring things.
To compensate for the subjectivity of constructivism, you need to pay special attention to ethics.
The way in which you collect, and construct, data are prerequisites for the validity and accuracy of your analysis.
Also, the quality of data and the way in which it is analyzed determine how reality is interpreted.
Constructivism is mostly used with grounded theory methodology.
Human interests are important for research purposes.
Therefore, constructivism can also be used with several other research methods.
For example, action research, case study research, ethnography, etc.
A multitude of data collection methods can be used.
For example, interviews, participant observation, artifacts and almost any documents that are relevant to the field of study can be consulted.
The aim of research using constructivism is often to understand situations or phenomena, not only to create new knowledge.
Rich data is gathered from which ideas can be formed.
It involves a researcher collaborating with participants.
That is an emic approach.
For those who might not be familiar with the etic and emic approaches to research – an emic approach is where the researcher works with the target group for the research.
She or he can even become part of the target group.
In an etic approach, the researcher observes the target group from the outside.
The interaction of several people is researched in their context or setting.
It mostly involves the social problems of the target group for the research.
The accuracy of research findings is validated and creates an agenda for change or reform.
This entails a rather well-known sequence of steps that are followed in most qualitative research methodologies.
The following are typical steps:
- Identify human interests.
- Formulate the aim of the research.
- Gather rich data.
- Collaborate with participants.
- Research target group interaction.
- Validate the accuracy of the findings.
- Create an agenda for change or reform.
Constructivism is associated with pragmatism, relativism, liberalism, interpretivism, symbolic interactionism and positivism.
For example, like positivism constructivism also uses observation to gather information.
Different from positivism, which argues that knowledge is generated in a scientific method, constructivism generates knowledge in an interpretive manner.
There are other differences between constructivism and positivism.
Constructivism prefers an emic approach while positivism is equally comfortable with an emic and an etic approach.
Constructivism prefers qualitative research while positivism prefers quantitative research.
Although some academics claim that constructivism can be positively associated with behaviorism, the link is rather weak and unconvincing.
Very well, behaviorism also uses observation to collect data, but behaviorism does not make use of reflection while constructivism does.
Then again, radical behaviorism makes use of reflection.
Constructivism rejects scientism and empiricism, also because of the lack of reflection.
Constructivism is widely criticized for its lack of value in education and its lack of balance when used as a philosophy in research.
In education, it can lead to group thinking when one or a few prominent educators propagate a process or concept as “the only truth”.
Constructivists sometimes place too much emphasis on sensory experience at the expense of reflection.
This means that constructivists sometimes focus strongly on the ontology, that is “what is” and neglect the epistemology, that is the “why” and the “how” of a phenomenon.
Because of this, knowledge is sometimes not sufficiently proven to be valid and accurate.
Some academics integrate constructivism with other paradigms.
Others regard such integration as robbing constructivism of its identity.
The third group of academics feels that integrating constructivism with other paradigms enhances the philosophical strength of the research process.
Summary
Constructivism requires intelligent cognitive reasoning.
People construct their own understanding and knowledge of the world through experience and reflection.
The aim of constructivism is to understand situations and phenomena.
Research often involves creating change or reform.
Ethics and human interests are important in constructivism.
Constructivism makes use of many data collection methods.
Constructivism is associated with pragmatism, relativism, liberalism, interpretivism, symbolic interactionism and positivism.
Constructivism rejects scientism and empiricism.
Constructivism is criticized for:
- Not having much value in education.
- Lack of balance.
- Too much emphasis on sensory experiences.
- New knowledge not always been proven as valid and accurate.
ARTICLE 25: Research Methods for Ph. D. Studies: Case Studies
Written by Dr Hannes Nel
Introduction
There is an increasing number of COVID-19 cases across the world without a defined chain of transmission.
It is easy to miss infected people who might have come into contact with the virus.
New cases increasingly crop up in unsuspected places.
There is still much uncertainty regarding how and where the virus is spreading.
Rumours abound, and scaremongering is becoming as serious a problem as the virus itself.
This is a perfect example of a problem that can be researched through case study research.
Case study research
Case study research can follow almost any research paradigm.
The exceptions can be technicist paradigms, especially scientism, rationalism, positivism and modernism.
Then again, I believe one can even use case studies to do research in natural science.
Case study means doing systematic research on contemporary phenomena or events.
Like action research, it is linked to a specific time, site and context.
Multiple sources of evidence can be used.
A case study strives towards a holistic and comprehensive understanding of how participants relate to and interact with each other in a specific situation.
Case study research looks for meaning in a situation or event.
It can be used across a variety of disciplines to answer epistemological questions.
Research questions can be answered by an individual, two people or a whole group.
Although answers are given by members of a target group, the focus is on a system of action rather than just the sample for the research.
Case study research can be selective, focusing on one or two issues that are fundamental to understanding the system being examined.
Case study research investigates behavior, but not just the behavior of the target group for the research.
It strives to identify the behavior of an entire system.
For example, the researcher might do research on how people react to those who might have come into contact with the COVID-19 virus by interviewing such people.
Or they can determine how people respond to such “almost infected” people by observing how family and friends react when they return home from where they could have come into contact with the virus.
The researcher will probably try to identify a pattern of behavior that can be regarded as generally applicable.
You will need to come to a deeper understanding of the dynamics of the situation before a behavioral pattern can be identified and described.
A strong point of the case study method is that almost any data collection method can be used.
For example, participant observation, interviews, audio-visual material, document surveys and even the collection of physical artifacts.
You should determine in advance what evidence to gather and what analysis techniques to use with the data that you collect.
Data collection will probably be mostly qualitative in nature, but it can also include quantitative data.
A second strong point of the case study method is that it deals directly with the individual case in its actual context.
Case studies get as close to the subject of interest as they possibly can.
This is achieved because direct observation in natural settings can be used.
Also, because you can have access to subjective factors, such as thoughts, feelings, desires, etc.
Surely you will ask people how they feel, how they experience the situation, etc. when you interview them.
The case itself is the focus of your research, not the variables.
You need to focus strongly on the purpose of your research.
The general purpose of case study research is to generate knowledge.
It can also be used for theoretical elaboration or analytical generalization.
Criticism of case study research is that it often depends on a single case.
That makes it difficult to have your findings apply generally.
Summary
Case study research is perfectly suited to finding solutions for social problems.
The current COVID-19 situation is a good example, where social scientists would investigate the psychological effect of the threat on people while natural scientists try to find a way in which to combat the virus.
Case study research can use most philosophical stances, or paradigms.
Epistemological questions are mostly investigated.
A good measure of generalization is sought for human behavior at a particular time and context.
You, as the researcher, will need to come to a deeper understanding of the dynamics of the situation before a behavioral pattern can be identified and described.
Case studies investigate a target group through direct observation in a natural setting.
The purpose of the research is critically important.
Case study research can be used to generate knowledge, for theoretical elaboration and analytical generalization.
Research Methods for Ph. D. Studies: Grounded Theory
Introduction
Grounded theory is a type of inductive thematic analysis (ITA).
It was developed by Glaser and Strauss in the 1960s.
Glaser and Strauss supported symbolic interactionism as a philosophical perspective.
How is grounded theory used?
Grounded theory uses inductive reasoning to generate the theoretical understandings of research by grounding the theory in the data that the researcher collected.
It is a highly systematic method for mostly studying social experiences, interactions and structures.
Grounded theory discovers, develops and provisionally verifies phenomena.
This means that the data originate in the framework for the study and should deliver logical and relevant conclusions.
Integrating grounded theory with other research and data collection methods
It is almost always necessary to use grounded theory in conjunction with one or more other research methods.
Any data collection method may be used in conjunction with grounded theory methods, bearing in mind that data collection should build on a naturalistic, interpretive philosophy.
Grounded theory methods specify analytical strategies, not data collection methods.
Grounded theory:
- Is a qualitative research approach.
- Requires an open mind, objectivity and ethical and responsible analysis of data.
- Is especially popular amongst those who study humanistic sciences.
- Can also be used for the study of non-human phenomena.
The purpose of grounded theory
The primary purpose of grounded theory is to generate theory from observations of real life.
Grounded theory aims at the discovery of regularities, the identification of categories or elements and the establishment of their connections.
Theoretical models and new theoretical concepts and arguments should be created and continuously revised as you collect and analyse data.
Grounded theory holds as a basic view that qualitative researchers do not go around testing an existing body of knowledge, but rather that they build new theory by allowing their data collection to steer their thoughts and conclusions into the unknown.
The grounded theory process
Grounded theory research should be done in a specific and well-defined context.
The research should be grounded in social reality and not be just an exercise in theorizing.
It uses a typical research process of data collection, data analysis, coming to conclusions, and formulating findings.
Findings should be transformable into formal theoretical models.
The process of collecting data is a prerequisite for analysis, while theory development should result from the analysis.
Researchers sometimes think that grounded theory is about the research process, especially data collection and analyses.
The essence of grounded theory, however, does not lie in the research process but rather in the attitude of the researcher towards the data and the purpose of the research.
It requires that each piece of the data is systematically compared with other data on the same or related issue or topic.
You should not ignore small units of text.
It just might have the potential to improve current theory and practice.
At the same time, you should not waste time with data that is clearly of no significance, because analysis is a time-consuming activity.
You can compare existing data with other existing data or with new data.
Grounded theory is based on the subjective experiences of humans.
You may also use your own experiences to understand the experiences of others.
Guard against just adopting the ideas, perceptions or models of others.
If you do this, you run the risk of just packaging old, existing knowledge differently.
Verification is a natural element of any scientific research because it strengthens the authenticity and validity of the findings and provides you with a measure of security.
Data collected should not be over-verified, because grounded theory epistemology leans strongly towards the generation of new theory rather than the analysis of existing theory.
Deconstruction can be used to lend a good measure of authenticity to the data.
Don’t neglect acknowledging the work of other researchers that you consulted and quoted.
Computer software
You can use dedicated computer programmes to arrange, compare and analyse the data that you collected.
ATLAS.Ti is an example of software that you can use.
There are a good number of others. I am just mentioning ATLAS.Ti because it is the one that I used and am familiar with.
You can easily find suitable software by just Googling for them.
Most dedicated computer programmes make use of coding.
Coding can be described as a sophisticated form of notecards like the ones that we used many decades ago.
You will create codes for salient data with most of the available software.
You can also write explanatory notes in the form of memorandums.
The programme groups related codes and memorandums together.
This enables you to get a clear and holistic picture of concepts and arguments so that you can more easily come to conclusions and findings.
Your findings should be or lead to new knowledge, theories and models.
From the codes and memorandums, new theory and new theoretical models can be discovered through inductive reasoning.
Inductive reasoning entails systematic data collection and analysis which leads to discovery, development and verification.
Most importantly, dedicated programmes substantially simplify the process of writing your research report.
Grounded theory methodology needs not be limited to computer analysis only.
You can, for example, still use the old notecard system or you can develop your own system on computer.
The value of grounded theory
Grounded theory enables you:
- To step back and critically analyse situations.
- To recognise the tendency towards bias.
- To think abstractly.
- Toe be flexible and open to helpful criticism.
- To be sensitive to the words and actions of respondents.
- To adopt a sense of absorption and devotion to the work process.
Utilising grounded theory for research should enable you to see beyond the ordinary and to arrive at new understandings of social life.
The most important value of grounded theory is that it enables you to generate theory and to ground that theory in data.
Paradigms that can be used with grounded theory
Any paradigmatic approach can be used with grounded theory.
Mostly, however, grounded theory displays elements of post-modernism as well as symbolic interactionism.
Post-modernism lends itself to the achievement of formal theory while symbolic interactionism implies that the study is grounded in a specific empirical world.
As already mentioned, grounded theory requires elements of interpretivism as well.
There are two versions of grounded theory, namely constructivist and objectivist grounded theory.
Objectivist grounded theory is rooted in a positivist paradigmatic approach.
The objectivist viewpoint claims that it is possible to discover objective truth.
The data already exists, and you will need to discover theory from them.
Constructivist grounded theory has its roots in an interpretivist paradigmatic approach.
The constructivist viewpoint rejects the objectivist viewpoint, contending that there is no objective truth waiting to be discovered.
Constructivist grounded theory assumes that truth exists only through interaction with the realities of the world.
Meaning is, therefore, constructed rather than discovered.
Summary
The following are the elements of grounded theory:
- The purpose of grounded theory is to build new theory.
- Current theory or observation can serve as the basis for new theory.
- Grounded theory deals with how data and phenomena are interpreted and used rather than how they are collected.
- You should systematically review units of data as they become available.
- Any research method should utilise the philosophy behind grounded theory, meaning that any researcher should be open-minded and objective.
- Building new theory requires analytical induction, meaning that new theory emerges from collected data inductively through a series of steps.
- Grounded theory
requires the development of five interrelated properties.
- The theory must closely fit the relevant field of study in which the new theory will be used.
- The new theory must be readily understandable to laymen concerned with the field of study.
- The new theory must be relevant to a multitude of diverse daily situations within the focus area of the field of study.
- New knowledge should be generalizable as widely as possible.
- The new knowledge must allow those who use it to have enough trust in the validity and accuracy of the new knowledge, theories and models.
- Dedicated computer programmes enable you to discover regularities in data, to identify categories or elements and to establish their connections.
Research Methods for Ph. D. Studies: Conceptual Studies
Introduction
Is prostitution all bad?
Are all prostitutes bad people?
When is a person a prostitute?
In laymen’s terms, one would probably call subjective answers to questions like these “labeling the individual”.
The label can easily become a concept for academic research.
Concepts are the elements of which theories are composed.
Also, concepts are symbolic and abstract elements that represent objects, or features of objects, processes, or phenomena.
If prostitution is the topic of your research, you might need to identify characteristics that will define such a person.
Concepts may introduce new ideas or perspectives.
They may also be a means of explaining a broad generalization.
You might, for example, discover through your studies that prostitutes are not all bad, which might question the rather general perception that a prostitute can only be defined in terms of bad characteristics.
In terms of ideas, concepts are important because they are the foundation of communication and thought.
Concepts provide a means for people to let others know what they are thinking and allow information to be shared.
By conceptualizing a set of behaviours or ideas as part of a coherent package, we can describe a range of possible ideas, relations, and outcomes with a single term.
Examples of such terms are sociopaths, delinquents, criminals, rapists, altruists, serial murderers, etc.
Conceptual studies are largely based on secondary sources that you, as a researcher, may consult to gain an understanding of concepts.
They aim to add to your existing knowledge and understanding.
An in-depth critical analysis of the literature is intrinsic to concept analysis.
Apart from books and documents, maps and air photos can also be sources of data for concept analysis.
Conceptual cartography takes the process of critical analysis further because maps are both analytical tools and products of concept analysis.
Conceptual studies can comfortably use the interpretivist paradigms, for example ethnomethodology, hermeneutics, interpretivism.
Critical paradigms, for example feminism, can also be used.
The classical concepts analysis-type studies follow a step-by-step procedure.
The following are possible steps:
Step 1: Select the concept.
The concept may be prostitutes, whom you would describe in terms of certain characteristics.
Step 2: Identify the purpose of the analysis.
The purpose of your analysis might, for example be to determine real and objective characteristics of what defines a person as a prostitute.
Step 3: Analyse the concept’s range of meanings.
You will need to keep an open mind when doing research through conceptual studies.
Kill your preconceived perceptions.
Let your research discover the range of meanings for you.
Step 4: Determine the critical attributes of the concept.
Critical attributes can also be subjective if you don’t wipe out your perceptions and believe the data that you collected.
You will need to consult unbiased sources of information. Don’t interview just the reverent at a church – also speak to the prostitute.
Step 5: Select a paradigmatic approach.
Interpretivist paradigms are mostly best for conceptual studies because they accept conversation and personal opinions as data.
Step 6: Construct additional cases.
I’ve come across two researchers who did research on just one prostitute each. This can be acceptable, depending on the purpose of your research.
However, corroboration can be found best by comparing case studies and consulting a variety of data sources.
Step 7: Identify antecedents and consequences.
Real-life experiences can often be the best evidence in social research.
Even natural scientists look for actual cause and effect occurrences in their research.
Summary
Conceptual studies:
- Tend to be abstract, philosophical and rich in theoretical underpinnings.
- Is the foundation of communication and thought.
- Is largely based on secondary sources of data.
- Follows a step-by-step research procedure.
Concepts are the building blocks from which theories are constructed.
They can also be the symbolic and abstract elements of theories.
Conceptual studies aim to:
- Add to existing knowledge and understanding.
- Introduce new ideas and perspectives.
- Explain broad generalisations.
- Describe a range of ideas in a single term.
Research Methods for Ph. D. Studies: Case Study Research
Written and posted by Dr Hannes Nel
Introduction
There is an increasing number of COVID-19 cases across the world without a defined chain of transmission.
It is easy to miss infected people who came into contact with the virus.
New cases increasingly crop up in unsuspected places.
There is still much uncertainty regarding how the virus spreads.
Rumours abound, and scaremongering is becoming as serious a problem as the virus itself.
This is a perfect example of a problem that can be researched through case study research.
I will discuss case study research as a research method in this article.
Case study research
Case study research can follow almost any research paradigm.
The exceptions can be technicist paradigms, especially scientism, rationalism, positivism and modernism.
Then again, I believe one can even use case studies to do research in natural science.
Case study means doing systematic research on contemporary phenomena or events.
Like action research, it is linked to a specific time, site and context.
Multiple sources of evidence can be used.
A case study strives towards a holistic and comprehensive understanding of how participants relate to and interact with each other in a specific situation.
Case study research looks for meaning in a situation or event.
It can be used across a variety of disciplines to answer epistemological questions.
Research questions can be answered by an individual, two people or a whole group.
Although answers are given by members of a target group, the focus is on a system of action rather than just the sample for the research.
Case study research can be selective, focusing on one or two issues that are fundamental to understanding the system being examined.
Case study research investigates behavior, but not just the behavior of the target group for the research.
It strives to identify the behavior of an entire system.
For example, the researcher might do research on how people react to those who might have come into contact with the COVID-19 virus by interviewing them.
Or they can determine how people respond to such “almost infected” people by observing how family and friends react when they return home from where they could have come into contact with the virus.
The researcher will probably try to identify a pattern of behavior that can be regarded as generally applicable.
You will need to come to a deeper understanding of the dynamics of the situation before a behavioural pattern can be identified and described.
A strong point of the case study method is that almost any data collection method can be used.
For example, participant observation, interviewing, audio-visual material, document surveys and even the collection of physical artifacts.
You should determine in advance what evidence to gather and what analysis techniques to use with the data that you collect.
Data collection will probably be mostly qualitative in nature, but it can also include quantitative data.
A second strong point of the case study method is that it deals directly with the individual case in its actual context.
Case studies get as close to the subject of interest as they possibly can.
This is achieved because direct observation in natural settings can be used.
Also, because you can have access to subjective factors, such as thoughts, feelings, desires, etc.
Surely you will ask people how they feel, how they experience the situation, etc. when you interview them.
The case itself is the focus of your research, not the variables.
You need to focus strongly on the purpose of your research, nothing else.
The general purpose of case study research is to generate knowledge.
It can also be used for theoretical elaboration or analytical generalization.
Criticism of case study research is that it often depends on a single case.
That makes it difficult to have your findings apply generally.
Summary
Case study research is perfectly suited to finding solutions for social problems.
The current COVID-19 situation is a good example, where social scientists would investigate the psychological effect of the threat on people while natural scientists try to find a way in which to combat the virus.
Case study research can use most philosophical stances or paradigms.
Epistemological questions are mostly investigated.
A good measure of generalization is sought for human behavior at a particular time and context.
You, as the researcher, will need to come to a deeper understanding of the dynamics of the situation before a behavioral pattern can be identified and described.
Case studies investigate a target group through direct observation in a natural setting.
The purpose of the research is critically important.
Case study research can be used to generate knowledge, for theoretical elaboration and analytical generalization.
Research Methods for Ph. D. Studies: Action Research
Introduction
Some universities charge exorbitant fees for the privilege to study through them.
And some parents will pay what the university charges because they want their children to obtain a Ph. D. from this and that excellent university.
It is also true that some universities are better positioned to offer research in certain fields of science.
You might need a laboratory that only one or a few universities have.
Or perhaps you might need a special computer or other scientific tools and equipment that not all universities have.
In such an instance you will be doing the right thing to do whatever it takes to be accepted for Ph. D. studies by the university of your choice.
However, whatever the topic of your research, the most important deciding factor if your Ph. D. will be a quality product is you – the student.
I will discuss action research as a research method in this post.
Action research
Some know action research by other names, for example, action learning, action science, collaborative inquiry, community-based study, contextual action research, co-operative inquiry, emancipatory research, participatory research, etc.
Action research is “learning by doing”.
This means that a group of people will identify an immediate problem, do something to resolve it, evaluate their efforts and try again if unsuccessful.
Action research aims to solve the practical concerns of people in an immediate problematic situation.
It, simultaneously, adds value to social science.
The community that is the target for action research often also actively participate in the research.
This means that the people affected by a social problem work with the researcher to study a problem.
They help to collect data, make suggestions and recommendations and use the results of the research to influence social change.
This would be an emic approach to research.
Just to clarify – In terms of the relationship between the researcher and his or her target for research, we can follow either an emic or an etic approach.
An emic approach to research is where the researcher and the target for the research cooperate in finding a solution to a problem.
An etic approach to research would be where the researcher does research as an observer divorced from the target group.
Action research is a developmental research process.
This means that people not only solve problems by falling back on their current knowledge but also learn and develop new knowledge that they can apply in the future to solve the same or similar problems.
The solutions to problems in one community can often also be used to solve the same or similar problems in other communities.
Action research is typically cyclical in terms of data collection and analysis and starts with identifying a problem, collecting data, analyzing the data, taking action to resolve the problem and evaluating the outcome of the research.
Typically, the participants in the research “own” the problem and they become partners in carrying out the research.
A process of reflective critique is followed, meaning that members of the target group together with the researcher would consider, discuss and decide on a solution to the problem being researched.
It also implies dialectical critique, meaning that the research problem is solved through open critique.
As a researcher you will probably be concerned that people might not accept your interpretations, ideas and judgements.
This is normal. People often resist change because it creates uncertainty and sometimes even fear.
Sometimes fear has little to do with the potential changes in the immediate environment, but rather with the research process itself.
There is also the risk that change might threaten people’s status and even their relevance to the community.
You will need to address these fears if you are to gain and keep the support of the community with your research.
Such fear is not all bad, though. It is what drives you to do professional research.
The nature of action research raises several possible ethical dilemmas.
Your bias towards the data being collected might damage the quality of your research as well as your relationship with the target group for your research.
Other factors, such as the needs and fears of the target group might contaminate the authenticity and validity of the data that you and the members of the target group collect.
The target group might have a different agenda than you for participating in the research.
Your own diligence and drive, or rather lack of diligence and drive, can hamper the level of your involvement in the research.
You might become too emotionally involved with the target group for the research and the problem being investigated.
The effect on the participants when you withdraw from the community on completion of the research might leave them in a position where they cannot manage the situation on their own.
You will need to consider this and ensure that the community is not damaged by your research.
Examples of paradigms that fit in well with action research are:
Ethnomethodology.
Neoliberalism.
Summary
Action research considers theory to inform practice, that is the real situation in a particular context and at a particular point in time.
Theory together with reality is analysed to transform the status quo, that is to solve a social problem.
Solving a social problem is achieved by following an emic approach and reflective and dialectical critique.
The researcher should consider the possible risk that research can do more harm than good if there is not mutual respect and trust between the researcher and the community whose problem is being addressed.
Research Methods for Ph. D. Studies
Introduction
For my first doctoral study, I used a quantitative method, specifically CHAID supported with loglinear analysis and the CATMOD procedure. I chose this statistical method because I intended to send out many questionnaires. I had to ask for the assistance of the statisticians of the South African Council for Social Research to process my completed questionnaires because I did not have the software or knowledge to do the work.
Of course, I had to analyse the printouts of the processed data myself, else I would not have been able to come to any conclusions, findings or suggested solutions to my research problem.
In retrospect, I was walking on thin ice by making use of a statistical process about which I knew absolutely nothing.
In this article, I will share with you an introduction to research methods.
Most of the methods that I will discuss should be used with qualitative research, although some can also be used with quantitative research.
All research methods can be used with a mixed approach.
The challenge with quantitative research methods is that they are often dedicated to a specific scientific field of study rather than to a research method.
They often also deviate from the generally accepted structure of a Ph. D. Research Report.
Therefore, I will only share a few remarks on statistical research methods in general rather than to try to discuss research methods that are used in a specific natural science field.
Research methods overlap with research paradigms and data collection methods. I will discuss them separately in future posts.
Mixed research methods
Research on doctoral level is becoming increasingly diverse and inclusive of both qualitative and quantitative research methods.
That is one of the reasons why a mixed-method approach is often followed.
Another reason why students decide to follow a mixed-method approach is because they feel that a combination provides a better understanding of a research problem than just focusing on qualitative or quantitative research methods.
Some students argue that a mixed-method enhances the validity and accuracy of data and the relevance and value of research findings.
The overarching premise is that the integration of two or more methods should facilitate the achievement of research objectives.
The decision of whether to integrate multiple methods depends on a combination of the research objectives, the resources and time available, your philosophical assumptions, your knowledge of research methods and your style or personal preferences. The people who will read your research report, especially your sponsor, but also your study leader and the external examiners, will also have an influence on which research method or methods you will use.
Different methods can be used as a form of triangulation in the hope that the findings from the different methods will corroborate one another.
Where will you discuss the research method that you will use?
You will probably discuss the research method that you will use in the second chapter of your dissertation or thesis.
You should explain:
- The method that you will use without trying to “teach” you study leader or other readers the intricacies of research. They probably know more about this than you.
- Why you chose the method.
- The reason why you chose the method.
You should also provide a detailed description of the components of the methodology of your choice.
The method that you choose must enable you to progress from a problem situation to a solution.
As far as possible you should do as much of the work as possible on your own.
For my second doctoral study, I used Atlas.Ti to code an analyse the data that I collected, mostly through interviewing. I used grounded theory, which is a qualitative research method. This time around I attended a short course on Atlas.Ti at the University of Guildford in Surrey before embarking on my studies, so that I could do all the work on my own.
Your method or methods can consist of a combination of literature study, models, arguments, mathematical proofs, surveys, case studies, experimentation, etc.
Did you notice that I am integrating research methods with data collection methods here?
The chapter on your research methods is mostly not difficult to write.
After all, you will have all the information from a book or books that you consulted.
Even better, your study leader can suggest a method that will work well with the nature of your research.
In addition to the purpose of your research, you should also consider your knowledge, experience, strong points, and weak points and the data that you will have access to.
Don’t choose a quantitative method if you feel uncomfortable with calculations and statistics or if you do not have access to laboratories or other scientific equipment that you will need.
Don’t choose a qualitative method if you will not have access to or feel comfortable with people as your target group.
Summary
You will probably use quantitative research methods if you feel comfortable with figures and statistics, if you have access to the laboratories or other scientific equipment that you will need for your research and if the topic of your research is such that it can be investigated quantitatively.
You will probably use qualitative research methods if you feel comfortable when working with people, when the topic of your research is suitable for qualitative research if you need to solve immediate social or community problems.
You will probably use mixed research methods if there is a need to collect and analyse quantitative and qualitative data.
You can use more than one research method, and some of them might be quantitative while others are qualitative in nature. Different methods can be used as a form of triangulation, which should give you a measure of corroboration of your data and findings.
Keep in mind that research methods, paradigms, data collection methods, and data analysis methods are all parts of the research process.
You will probably discuss the research method that you will follow in the second chapter of your research report. Although it is an important chapter, you should not go into too much detail.
How to Write the First Chapter of your Ph. D. Research Report.
Introduction
Most universities will allow you to choose a name for your first chapter.
It can simply be “Introduction”.
You can also choose a more descriptive name of the contents of the chapter, for example “Contextualising the Study.”
Some universities might even allow you to insert a Preface before your first chapter.
You should check with the university first before you add a separate preface to your research report.
I will share a few thoughts on the preface near the end of this post for the sake of clarity.
Each chapter in your research report should have its own introduction, but that is not what I will discuss here, so don’t get confused.
Writing the first chapter is the launch pad to writing a research report.
It points the writing process in the direction it should go and lay out what your research project should achieve.
The following are possible headings for your first chapter:
- Introduction. It might be confusing if you include an introduction to a chapter called “Introduction”, but that should not be a serious problem.
You can discuss the following issues in the introduction:
- Your problem statement, problem question or hypothesis.
- Clarify the problem statement, question or hypothesis.
- Background information on the field in which the study will be conducted.
- You should narrow the wider scope (the background information) down to a viable target group or target area.
- Explain why the problem or hypothesis is important.
- Introduce and develop the topic for your research.
- Introduce the title for your research report (thesis or dissertation).
- Statement
of objectives.
- Break the purpose down into objectives and objectives into sub-objectives or tasks.
- This breakdown can be useful when you need to prepare questions for interviews or questionnaires that you intend sending to members of your target group.
- Definition
of related concepts.
- Concepts and words are often understood and used differently by different academics.
- It will often be impossible to determine what the right meanings are.
- Therefore, do your homework to determine as accurately as you possibly can what the concepts and words that you will use mean and then explain how you will use them.
- The
motivation for the study.
- You need to explain why you wish to investigate the problem of your choice.
- Current knowledge of the problem.
- Most universities will not even allow you to enroll for doctoral studies if you cannot show that you have enough prior knowledge of the topic of your research.
- Potential
benefits of the research.
- You need to explain who will benefit from your research as well as how they will benefit.
- This can be integrated with your motivation for the study.
- Ethical
issues.
- You need to conduct your research and write your report in a manner that will be acceptable to any reasonable person and that does not transgress any legislation, rules or regulations.
- The university will require of you to confirm in writing that this is the case.
- The
structure of your study.
- The structure of your research will depend on the university requirements, the research approach, research methods, paradigms, data collection methods and data analysis methods that you will use.
- Your personal style will also play a role.
- Summary
of Chapter 1.
- Each of your chapters need to have an introduction and a summary.
- You can add conclusions and recommendations that you gained from the chapter here.
- Cutting and pasting sections from the body of the chapter is not a summary – it is an extract.
- The summary should not contain new information.
- It will, therefore, be unlikely that you will acknowledge sources in the summary.
- You should summarise the chapter in such a way that all the important facts and arguments are given in a concise manner.
The preface
Some universities will allow you to include a preface before your first chapter.
You will probably only write the preface after the research report has been completed.
Or you can write the preface while you are writing the rest of your report.
A preface is usually a combination of disparate elements, necessary for the clarification of aspects of the work, but not necessarily concerned with the development of the argument.
Some claim that a good preface consists of three distinct parts – a general presentation of the research problem, the purpose of the research, and stating your position in terms of your capacity and limitations to do the research.
All of this can also be included in a first chapter.
Be careful of not using the preface to rationalize.
Do not use the preface to make excuses for not submitting quality work. If that is the case, no preface can save you – your study leader and external examiners will see that your work is not up to standard.
You may wish or need to supply information on the historical or literary background of your research topic, intellectual climate and biographical material relevant to a fuller understanding and appreciation of the research material.
Do not use the preface to put the blame for your challenges on your family, your employer, study leader, the university, the world.
Summary
The first chapter of your research report prepares the reader for the scientific argumentation and evaluation of the information that you will gather and analyse.
You should use the first chapter to contextualise your study.
It explains the importance of your research topic, how you will investigate the problem or hypothesis that you formulated, the area and target group for your research and what your research project should achieve.
Although you will need to show what you expect to achieve, you need to guard against showing that you have already decided what the results of your research will be.
You need to be objective and conduct research with an open mind.
Some universities will allow you to include a preface before your first chapter. The best way to write a preface is to write it while your write your research report.
Go back to the preface when you think of something that you desperately need to write but that does not fit into the structure and layout of your research report.
Do not use the preface for anything that might damage your end-product.