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ARTICLE 26: Research Methods for Ph. D. and Master’s Degree Studies: Conceptual studies

22nd Aug 2020 No Comments

Written by Dr. Hannes Nel

Introduction

Is prostitution all bad?

Are all prostitutes bad people?

When is a person a prostitute?

In laymen’s terms, one would probably call subjective answers to questions like these “labelling the individual”.

The label can easily become a concept for academic research.

Concepts are the elements of which theories are composed.

Also, concepts are symbolic and abstract elements that represent objects, or features of objects, processes, or phenomena.

If prostitution is the topic of your research, you might need to identify characteristics that will define such a person.

Concepts may introduce new ideas or perspectives.

They may also be a means of explaining a broad generalization.

You might, for example, discover through your studies that prostitutes are not all bad, which might question the rather general perception that a prostitute can only be defined in terms of bad characteristics.

In terms of ideas, concepts are important because they are the foundation of communication and thought.

Concepts provide a means for people to let others know what they are thinking and allow information to be shared.

By conceptualizing a set of behaviors or ideas as part of a coherent package, we can describe a range of possible ideas, relations and outcomes with a single term.

Examples of such terms are sociopaths, delinquents, criminals, rapists, altruists, serial murderers, etc.

Conceptual studies are largely based on secondary sources that you, as a researcher, may consult to gain an understanding of concepts.

They aim to add to your existing knowledge and understanding.

An in-depth critical analysis of the literature is intrinsic to concept analysis.

Apart from books and documents, maps and air photos can also be sources of data for concept analysis.

Conceptual cartography takes the process of critical analysis further because maps are both analytical tools and products of concept analysis.

Conceptual studies can comfortably use the interpretivist paradigms, for example, ethnomethodology, hermeneutics, interpretivism.

Some critical paradigms, for example, feminism, can also be used.

The classical concepts analysis-type studies follow a step-by-step procedure.

The following are possible steps:

Step 1: Select the concept.

The concept may be prostitutes, whom you would describe in terms of certain characteristics.

Step 2: Identify the purpose of the analysis.

The purpose of your analysis might, for example, be to determine real and objective characteristics of what defines a person as a prostitute.

Step 3: Analyze the concept’s range of meanings.

You will need to keep an open mind when doing research through conceptual studies.

Kill your preconceived perceptions.

Do not be judgmental.

Let your research discover the range of meanings for you.

Step 4: Determine the critical attributes of the concept.

Critical attributes can also be subjective if you do not wipe out your perceptions and believe the data that you collected.

You will need to consult unbiased sources of information.

Step 5: Select a paradigmatic approach.

Interpretivist paradigms are mostly best for conceptual studies because they accept conversation and personal opinions as data.

Step 6: Construct additional cases.

It would not be a good idea to study just one prostitute, although this is also possible, depending on the purpose of your research.

However, corroboration can be found best by comparing case studies and consulting a variety of data sources.

Step 7: Identify antecedents and consequences.

Real-life experiences can often be the best evidence in social research.

Even natural scientists look for actual cause and effect occurrences in their research.

Summary

Conceptual studies:

Tend to be abstract, philosophical and rich in theoretical underpinnings.
Are the foundation of communication and thought.
Are largely based on secondary sources of data.
Follow a step-by-step research procedure.

Concepts are the building blocks from which theories are constructed.

They can also be the symbolic and abstract elements of theories.

Conceptual studies aim to:

Add to existing knowledge and understanding.
Introduce new ideas and perspectives.
Explain broad generalizations.
Describe a range of ideas in a single term.

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ARTICLE 44: Research Methods for Ph. D. and Master’s Degree Studies: Constructivism

21st Aug 2020 No Comments

Written by Dr. Hannes Nel, D. Com, D. Phil

Introduction

One certainty about post-graduate research is that there is no guarantee that you will succeed.

Many students do not even start because they are afraid that they might fail.

And the uncertainty coupled with the fear of failure after you have done a lot of work causes many students to not even start.

Constructivism is a simple paradigm with lots of promise of success.

Although there is still no guarantee, you can at least embark on your studies in the knowledge that you will have a fair chance to show what you are capable of.

What is more attractive to an intelligent and creative researcher than the opportunity to use his or her mind to develop new knowledge and understanding?

The work will still be a challenge, but thanks to constructivism, not an insurmountable one.

Constructivism

Constructivism is a rather liberal paradigm, that allows the researcher to create new knowledge and understanding through cognitive reasoning.

It claims that people construct their own understanding and knowledge of the world, through experiencing things and reflecting on those experiences.

We reconcile new observations and experiences with our previous ideas and experiences.

This might change our perceptions, or the new information and experiences might be discarded.

How we respond to new information and experiences depends on how we process the data in our minds.

This means that we create our own knowledge by asking questions and exploring things.

To compensate for the subjectivity of constructivism, you need to pay special attention to ethics.

The way in which you collect, and construct, data are prerequisites for the validity and accuracy of your analysis.

Also, the quality of data and the way in which it is analyzed determine how reality is interpreted.

Constructivism is mostly used with grounded theory methodology.

Human interests are important for research purposes.

Therefore, constructivism can also be used with several other research methods.

For example, action research, case study research, ethnography, etc.

A multitude of data collection methods can be used.

For example, interviews, participant observation, artifacts and almost any documents that are relevant to the field of study can be consulted.

The aim of research using constructivism is often to understand situations or phenomena, not only to create new knowledge.

Rich data is gathered from which ideas can be formed.

It involves a researcher collaborating with participants.

That is an emic approach.

For those who might not be familiar with the etic and emic approaches to research – an emic approach is where the researcher works with the target group for the research.

She or he can even become part of the target group.

In an etic approach, the researcher observes the target group from the outside.

The interaction of several people is researched in their context or setting.

It mostly involves the social problems of the target group for the research.

The accuracy of research findings is validated and creates an agenda for change or reform.

This entails a rather well-known sequence of steps that are followed in most qualitative research methodologies.

The following are typical steps:

Identify human interests.
Formulate the aim of the research.
Gather rich data.
Collaborate with participants.
Research target group interaction.
Validate the accuracy of the findings.
Create an agenda for change or reform.

Constructivism is associated with pragmatism, relativism, liberalism, interpretivism, symbolic interactionism and positivism.

For example, like positivism constructivism also uses observation to gather information.

Different from positivism, which argues that knowledge is generated in a scientific method, constructivism generates knowledge in an interpretive manner.

There are other differences between constructivism and positivism.

Constructivism prefers an emic approach while positivism is equally comfortable with an emic and an etic approach.

Constructivism prefers qualitative research while positivism prefers quantitative research.

Although some academics claim that constructivism can be positively associated with behaviorism, the link is rather weak and unconvincing.

Very well, behaviorism also uses observation to collect data, but behaviorism does not make use of reflection while constructivism does.

Then again, radical behaviorism makes use of reflection.

Constructivism rejects scientism and empiricism, also because of the lack of reflection.

Constructivism is widely criticized for its lack of value in education and its lack of balance when used as a philosophy in research.

In education, it can lead to group thinking when one or a few prominent educators propagate a process or concept as “the only truth”.

Constructivists sometimes place too much emphasis on sensory experience at the expense of reflection.

This means that constructivists sometimes focus strongly on the ontology, that is “what is” and neglect the epistemology, that is the “why” and the “how” of a phenomenon.

Because of this, knowledge is sometimes not sufficiently proven to be valid and accurate.

Some academics integrate constructivism with other paradigms.

Others regard such integration as robbing constructivism of its identity.

The third group of academics feels that integrating constructivism with other paradigms enhances the philosophical strength of the research process.

Summary

Constructivism requires intelligent cognitive reasoning.

People construct their own understanding and knowledge of the world through experience and reflection.

The aim of constructivism is to understand situations and phenomena.

Research often involves creating change or reform.

Ethics and human interests are important in constructivism.

Constructivism makes use of many data collection methods.

Constructivism is associated with pragmatism, relativism, liberalism, interpretivism, symbolic interactionism and positivism.

Constructivism rejects scientism and empiricism.

Constructivism is criticized for:

Not having much value in education.
Lack of balance.
Too much emphasis on sensory experiences.
New knowledge not always been proven as valid and accurate.

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ARTICLE 25: Research Methods for Ph. D. Studies: Case Studies

21st Aug 2020 No Comments

Written by Dr Hannes Nel

Introduction

There is an increasing number of COVID-19 cases across the world without a defined chain of transmission.

It is easy to miss infected people who might have come into contact with the virus.

New cases increasingly crop up in unsuspected places.

There is still much uncertainty regarding how and where the virus is spreading.

Rumours abound, and scaremongering is becoming as serious a problem as the virus itself.

This is a perfect example of a problem that can be researched through case study research.

Case study research

Case study research can follow almost any research paradigm.

The exceptions can be technicist paradigms, especially scientism, rationalism, positivism and modernism.

Then again, I believe one can even use case studies to do research in natural science.

Case study means doing systematic research on contemporary phenomena or events.

Like action research, it is linked to a specific time, site and context.

Multiple sources of evidence can be used.

A case study strives towards a holistic and comprehensive understanding of how participants relate to and interact with each other in a specific situation.

Case study research looks for meaning in a situation or event.

It can be used across a variety of disciplines to answer epistemological questions.

Research questions can be answered by an individual, two people or a whole group.

Although answers are given by members of a target group, the focus is on a system of action rather than just the sample for the research.

Case study research can be selective, focusing on one or two issues that are fundamental to understanding the system being examined.

Case study research investigates behavior, but not just the behavior of the target group for the research.

It strives to identify the behavior of an entire system.

For example, the researcher might do research on how people react to those who might have come into contact with the COVID-19 virus by interviewing such people.

Or they can determine how people respond to such “almost infected” people by observing how family and friends react when they return home from where they could have come into contact with the virus.

The researcher will probably try to identify a pattern of behavior that can be regarded as generally applicable.

You will need to come to a deeper understanding of the dynamics of the situation before a behavioral pattern can be identified and described.

A strong point of the case study method is that almost any data collection method can be used.

For example, participant observation, interviews, audio-visual material, document surveys and even the collection of physical artifacts.

You should determine in advance what evidence to gather and what analysis techniques to use with the data that you collect.

Data collection will probably be mostly qualitative in nature, but it can also include quantitative data.

A second strong point of the case study method is that it deals directly with the individual case in its actual context.

Case studies get as close to the subject of interest as they possibly can.

This is achieved because direct observation in natural settings can be used.

Also, because you can have access to subjective factors, such as thoughts, feelings, desires, etc.

Surely you will ask people how they feel, how they experience the situation, etc. when you interview them.

The case itself is the focus of your research, not the variables.

You need to focus strongly on the purpose of your research.

The general purpose of case study research is to generate knowledge.

It can also be used for theoretical elaboration or analytical generalization.

Criticism of case study research is that it often depends on a single case.

That makes it difficult to have your findings apply generally.

Summary

Case study research is perfectly suited to finding solutions for social problems.

The current COVID-19 situation is a good example, where social scientists would investigate the psychological effect of the threat on people while natural scientists try to find a way in which to combat the virus.

Case study research can use most philosophical stances or paradigms.

Epistemological questions are mostly investigated.

A good measure of generalization is sought for human behavior at a particular time and context.

You, as the researcher, will need to come to a deeper understanding of the dynamics of the situation before a behavioral pattern can be identified and described.

Case studies investigate a target group through direct observation in a natural setting.

The purpose of the research is critically important.

Case study research can be used to generate knowledge, for theoretical elaboration and analytical generalization.

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ARTICLE 23: The Interrelatedness of Ontology, Epistemology and Methodology in Post-graduate Research.

21st Aug 2020 No Comments

Written by Dr. Hannes Nel

Introduction

With what degree of probability can experimental physicists say that they know how the world and life on it were created?

Will social scientists agree with them?

We can gain insight into questions like these through epistemology, ontology and methodology.

The interrelatedness of ontology, epistemology and methodology is the topic of this article.

Ontology

Ontology is concerned with the natural world.

It is the nature of reality.

It focuses on the core characteristics, origin and what we can observe.

The “what” question often leads to an ontology.

For example: “What exists?” “What is true?” “What is real?” “What is?”

Ontology deals with the nature of being. Such “being” is not necessarily checked for validity, although scientists often try.

You can already identify an event or phenomenon as true by making use of your senses.

The “origin of” or “the original meaning of” is given by ontology.

Phenomena are not explained but rather described or simply stated as fact.

Epistemology

Epistemology is the study and explanation of what knowledge is and the logic behind the knowledge.

It can also be the philosophy behind knowledge.

It focuses on explaining knowledge, how we can obtain knowledge and how we should reason about the nature and elements of knowledge.

Knowledge is often formulated and explained in terms of what an event or phenomenon looks like, why it is as it is and how models interact.

Epistemology is made up of the elements of the world in which we live.

Three such elements are popularly described.

The first element is a philosophical analysis of the nature of knowledge, which can include arguments, opinions and beliefs and how it relates to concepts such as the truth, validity, relevance and justification.

The second includes various issues of skepticism.

It asks if knowledge, arguments, opinions and beliefs are true, valid, relevant and justified.

The third is an explanation of the sources, criteria and scope of knowledge, arguments, opinions and beliefs.

For an epistemology understanding is more important than knowing and knowing is more important than to believe.

Even so, you can hardly develop an epistemology if you do not “know”.

Knowing is necessary to come to conclusions.

You will at least have an opinion or belief.

The epistemology of an event or phenomenon can be found through quantitative or qualitative research methods.

Your epistemological approach should be an effort to generate descriptions and explanations of the world, or at least the small part of the world that you do research on.

Your descriptions and explanations must, of course, be true, valid, relevant and justified.

Epistemology seeks to understand the how, origin, processes and limitations of observation.

Developing an epistemology requires operations such as drawing distinctions, establishing relations and creating constructs.

Epistemology includes a description of how knowledge impacts the target group for your research.

So, you can see that epistemology includes the research methods, data collection methods, and data analysis methods that we employ in our research.

Epistemology is the investigation of what distinguishes justified belief from opinion.

It implies the provision of evidence for your conclusions and inferences.

Methodology

Methodology is the procedure that you will follow to identify and prove your argument, opinion or belief.

Some researchers differentiate between research methodology and research methods.

They argue that research methodologies are philosophical approaches while research methods are ways of doing things.

Philosophical approaches are also called paradigmatic approaches while research methods can include data collection methods.

I am just mentioning this for the sake of those who wish to differentiate between research methodologies and research methods.

Whatever stance you adopt will probably not influence the research work that you do.

Methodology is concerned with how you know something and go about obtaining the knowledge and understand that you need to solve a research problem.

It is the way in which you would discover knowledge in a systematic way.

The link between ontology, epistemology and methodology

Ontology is the belief upon which you base your research.

Ontology defines your research framework while epistemology determines the research questions that you will need to answer.

Ontology specifies the nature of something that we can sense and that we wish to investigate further if we are to know more about and understand an event or phenomenon.

Epistemology is the philosophy and knowledge behind the belief that you will investigate by making use of a research method, or methodology.

This is called your research premise, paradigm or interpretive framework.

Checking for validity is the bridge between ontology and epistemology.

If you manage to explain a fact, you will have crossed the bridge to epistemology.

Here is a simple example – your ontology can be that something tastes sweet. Your epistemology will be the reasons why it tastes sweet.

A century ago, most people would not have known what a computer is. They never saw one and, therefore, it is not included in their ontology.

Today almost all people will recognize a computer when they see one, but some will still not know how it works. It has not been explained to them and, therefore, it is not yet part of their epistemology.

Epistemology and methodology are driven by ontological beliefs and observations.

Summary

Ontology is “the science of being”.

The ontology is a statement of fact without explanation.

A statement of fact can also be just a belief.

Thinking, evaluating, studying and theorizing about an event or phenomenon within the framework of a predefined society can be your epistemology.

Epistemology asks: “how do we come to know?”

Epistemology is an explanation, not a label.

In doctoral research, you need to find evidence that your theoretical and philosophical claims are correct.

Epistemology is the theory of knowledge and the science of explanation.

Your initial epistemology is improved through the development of new knowledge and philosophy.

Methodology is driven by your ontological beliefs and based on your initial epistemological philosophy.

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ARTICLE 24: Research Methods for Ph. D. and Master’s Degree Studies: Action Research

21st Aug 2020 No Comments

Written by Dr. Hannes Nel

Introduction

Studying for a Ph. D. or a master’s degree can be expensive.

Also, some universities are better positioned than others to offer research in certain fields of science.

You might need a laboratory that only one or a few universities have.

Or perhaps you might need a special computer or other scientific tools and equipment that not all universities have.

In such an instance you will be doing the right thing to do whatever it takes to be accepted for Ph. D. or master’s degree studies by the university of your choice.

However, whatever the topic of your research, the most important deciding factor, if your dissertation or thesis will be a quality product, is you – the student.

Some know action research by other names, for example, action learning, action science, collaborative inquiry, community-based study, contextual action research, co-operative inquiry, emancipatory research, participatory research, etc.

Action research is “learning by doing”.

This means that a group of people or just one researcher will identify an immediate problem, do something to resolve it, evaluate their efforts and try again if unsuccessful.

Action research aims to solve the practical concerns of people in an immediate problematic situation.

It, simultaneously, adds value to social science, especially on the doctoral level.

The community that is the target for action research often also actively participate in the research.

This means that the people affected by a social problem work with the researcher to study a problem.

They help to collect data, make suggestions and recommendations and use the results of the research to influence social change.

This would be an emic approach to research.

Just to clarify – In terms of the relationship between the researcher and his or her target for research, we can follow either an emic or an etic approach.

An emic approach to research is where the researcher and the target for the research cooperate in finding a solution to a problem.

An etic approach to research would be where the researcher does research as an observer divorced from the target group.

Action research is a developmental research process.

This means that people not only solve problems by falling back on their current knowledge but also learn and develop new knowledge that they can apply in the future to solve the same or similar problems.

The solutions to problems in one community can often also be used to solve the same or similar problems in other communities.

Action research is typically cyclical in terms of data collection and analysis and starts with identifying a problem, collecting data, analyzing the data, taking action to resolve the problem and evaluating the outcome of the research.

Typically, the participants in the research “own” the problem and they become partners in carrying out the research.

A process of reflective critique is followed, meaning that members of the target group together with the researcher would consider, discuss and decide on a solution to the problem being researched.

It also implies dialectical critique, meaning that the research problem is solved through open critique.

As a researcher, you will probably be concerned that people might not accept your interpretations, ideas and judgements.

This is normal. People often resist change because it creates uncertainty and sometimes even fear.

Sometimes fear has little to do with the potential changes in the immediate environment, but rather with the research process itself.

There is also the risk that change might threaten people’s status and even their relevance to the community.

You will need to address these fears if you are to gain and keep the support of the community with your research.

Such fear is not all bad, though. It is what drives you to do professional research.

The nature of action research raises several possible ethical dilemmas.

Your bias towards the data being collected might damage the quality of your research as well as your relationship with the target group for your research.

Other factors, such as the needs and fears of the target group might contaminate the authenticity and validity of the data that you and the members of the target group collect.

The target group might have a different agenda than you for participating in the research.

Your own diligence and drive, or rather lack of diligence and drive, can hamper the level of your involvement in the research.

You might become too emotionally involved with the target group for the research and the problem being investigated.

The effect on the participants when you withdraw from the community on completion of the research might leave them in a position where they cannot manage the situation on their own.

You will need to consider this and ensure that the community is not damaged by your research.

Examples of paradigms that fit in well with action research are:

Ethnomethodology.

Neoliberalism.

Summary

The process of action research can be summarized as in the slide given here.

Action research considers theory to inform practice, that is the real situation in a particular context and at a particular point in time.

Theory together with reality is analyzed to transform the status quo, which is to solve a social problem.

Solving a social problem is achieved by following an emic approach and reflective and dialectical critique.

The researcher should consider the possible risk that research can do more harm than good if there is not mutual respect and trust between him or her and the community whose problem is being addressed.

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ARTICLE 22: Research Methods for Ph. D. and Master’s Degree Studies

20th Aug 2020 No Comments

Written by Dr. Hannes Nel

Introduction

For my first doctoral study, I used a quantitative method, specifically CHAID supported with log-linear analysis and the CATMOD procedure. I chose this statistical method because I intended to send out many questionnaires. I had to ask for the assistance of the statisticians of the South African Council for Human Research to process my completed questionnaires.

Of course, I had to analyze the printouts of the processed data myself, else I would not have been able to come to any conclusions, findings or suggested solutions to my research problem.

In retrospect, I was walking on thin ice by making use of a statistical process about which I knew little.

Most of the methods that I will discuss should be used with qualitative research, although some should preferably be used with quantitative research.

All research methods can be used with a mixed approach.

Quantitative research methods are often dedicated to a specific scientific field of study rather than to a research method.

They sometimes also deviate from the generally accepted structure of a dissertation or thesis.

Research methods overlap with research paradigms and data collection methods. I will discuss them separately in future posts.

Mixed research methods

Research on the doctoral and master’s degree levels is becoming increasingly diverse and inclusive of both qualitative and quantitative research methods.

That is one of the reasons why a mixed-method approach is often followed.

Another reason why students decide to follow a mixed-method approach is that they feel that a combination provides a better understanding of a research problem than just focusing on qualitative or quantitative research methods.

Some students argue that a mixed-method enhances the validity and accuracy of data and the relevance and value of research findings.

The overarching premise is that the integration of two or more methods should facilitate the achievement of research objectives.

The decision of whether to integrate multiple methods depends on a combination of the research objectives, the resources and time available, your philosophical assumptions, your knowledge of research methods and your style or personal preferences. The people who will read your dissertation or thesis, especially your sponsor, but also your study leader, will also have an influence on which research method or methods you will use.

Different methods can be used as a form of triangulation in the hope that the findings from the different methods will corroborate one another.

Where will you discuss the research method that you will use?

You will probably discuss the research method that you will use in the second chapter of your dissertation or thesis.

You should explain:

The method that you will use without trying to “teach” your study leader or other readers the intricacies of research. They probably know more about this than you.
Why you chose the method.
The reason why you chose the method.

You should also provide a detailed description of the components of the methodology of your choice. I will discuss the components of different research methods in future posts, seeing that they differ for different research methods.

The method that you choose must enable you to progress from a problem situation to a solution.

As far as possible you should do as much of the work as possible on your own.

For my second doctoral study, I used Atlas.Ti to code and analyze the data that I collected, mostly through interviewing. I used grounded theory, which is a qualitative research method. This time around I attended a short course on Atlas.Ti at the University of Guildford in Surrey before embarking on my studies, so that I could do all the work on my own.

Your method or methods can consist of a combination of literature study, models, arguments, mathematical proofs, surveys, case studies, experimentation, etc.

Did you notice that I am integrating research methods with data collection methods here?

The chapter on your research methods is mostly not difficult to write.

After all, you will have all the information from a book or books that you consulted.

Even better, your study leader can suggest a method that will work well with the nature of your research.

In addition to the purpose of your research, you should also consider your knowledge, experience, strong points, weak points and the data that you will have access to.

Don’t choose a quantitative method if you feel uncomfortable with calculations and statistics or if you do not have access to laboratories or other scientific equipment that you will need.

Don’t choose a qualitative method if you will not have access to or feel comfortable with people as your target group.

Summary

You will probably use quantitative research methods if you feel comfortable with figures and statistics, if you have access to the laboratories or other scientific equipment that you will need for your research and if the topic of your research is such that it can be investigated quantitatively.

You will probably use qualitative research methods if you feel comfortable when working with people when the topic of your research is suitable for qualitative research and if you need to solve immediate social or community problems.

You will probably use mixed research methods if there is a need to collect and analyze quantitative and qualitative data.

You can use more than one research method, and some of them might be quantitative while others are qualitative in nature. Different methods can be used as a form of triangulation, which should give you a measure of corroboration of your data and findings.

Keep in mind that research methods, paradigms, data collection methods and data analysis methods are all parts of the research process.

You will probably discuss the research method that you will follow in the second chapter of your dissertation or thesis. Although it is an important chapter, you should not go into too much detail.

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ARTICLE 21: Consulting Sources of Information for Your Ph. D. or Masters Degree Research.

19th Aug 2020 No Comments

Written by Dr. Hannes Nel

Introduction

Hello, in case you did not see any of my previous videos, I am Hannes Nel.

In this video, I share some ideas about finding and selecting sources of information to use in your thesis or dissertation.

A suggested list of references is a valuable starting point for your research.

You should consult such references first if a list is available.

All professionally written books give recognition to sources which the writer of the book consulted.

You should be able to consult some of them.

It will not take you long to get to know which writers are recognized authorities in the field of your research.

Although you probably know this already.

Reading such books, articles, official documents, etc. can help you to find some good data and to learn how to discriminate between good and poor sources of information.

The same applies to internet sources.

Many academics still frown upon the use of internet sources.

I agree that much that is posted on the internet is probably not accurate and often also not valid information.

However, I do not agree that one should not use the internet to find information for research.

Many decades ago, people believed that all that was written in books, magazines and newspapers was true.

Some of you will remember how people used to defend their arguments by saying that “it was written in this or that newspaper”, or “that it is true because I heard it on the news.”

Now we know that the books, newspapers, magazines and the radio of back then did not always share the truth.

Regardless of which sources or what kind of sources of information you consult, you need to do whatever you can to verify the authenticity, validity and accuracy of the information that you are offered.

There are many ways in which you can evaluate and confirm the value of information.

An already old, but still effective way in which to do this is triangulation.

All academics do not agree about the value of triangulation as a method to corroborate the authenticity of data.

And yes, I admit that the truth can be dependent on context and time.

What is true now might not be true tomorrow or any other time in the past or the future.

What is true in one country or any other place will not necessarily be true in other countries or other places.

The truth as perceived by one person might not be true for somebody else.

You will see when we discuss the paradigms how differently different people can see the truth.

That is why I always define the information that I share in books, articles, the internet, etc. and I always respect the right of others to disagree with me.

Let’s get back to triangulation.

You need to know the ontology of triangulation to understand what it means in the context of academic research.

Triangulation has its origin in the science of survey.

Many decades ago, perhaps until some fifty years ago, surveyors used directors and later theodolites to find the coordinates for points on the ground. They would take bearings to known beacons on high points, add 180 degrees to obtain back bearings, and plot them on a map or aerial photo. The intersection of three such back bearings, measured from three beacons, would be the true position of the director or theodolite.

Such surveying was called triangulation because you had to use trigonometry to calculate the coordinates of the unknown point, which would be where you put the theodolite.

The rationale behind trigonometry is that the more bearings from known points you have, the more accurately can you calculate to coordinates of the unknown point.

In research, we use the same argument for confirming the accuracy of information. The more sources that contain the same information, the more likely it is that the information is accurate and true.

Of course, you can have more than three sources that corroborate information, but three are generally accepted as the minimum.

Obviously, this is not a foolproof technique. It can easily happen that several writers quote the same information that they obtained from a book or article written by somebody who shared false information, or from one another.

Triangulation does not relate to the source of information only.

Any kind of corroboration of the accuracy and validity of data and findings can be reinforced through triangulation.

Triangulation can refer to data, sources of information (which would include writers) researchers who come to the same findings and conclusions, theories that agree on arguments or points of view and different research methods that deliver the same or similar results.

Not all academics support triangulation as a way in which to corroborate data, findings, etc.

They too can have a point, because of differences in paradigmatic approaches.

It is a good idea to check how writers motivate and explain their arguments. Be careful of loose statements without any explanation or corroboration. Also, be careful of arguments that sound too good or bad to be true. Unlikely arguments are probably not true if they are not properly proven or supported or logically explained.

A simple way in which to find sources of data on the topic of your research is to find just one or a few relevant books on the library shelves or catalogs. There are often more books with similar content on the same shelve or in the same row.

A problem with books is that they become outdated rather fast. The same can be said about articles on the internet, though.

It is a healthy practice not to use books older than five years unless you know or can determine that the contents of the book or other sources of data is still accurate and relevant.

You will probably fall back on much older sources of information if the topic of your research deals with history.

Natural scientists will probably rely on statistics and other calculations for confirmation of accuracy. However, statistics can also be manipulated, as can laboratory tests.

Whatever sources you use, remember to give recognition to the originators.

Summary

When looking for sources of information, you should start with a list of references that the university, your study leader or any other expert whom you trust suggests.

See if you can find more sources from the books or other sources on the list.

Check the accuracy, validity and authenticity of the sources by looking for corroboration of the contents of the sources. Corroboration can be found through triangulation, seeking out writers with a known good reputation, and common sense.

Also, check how old the sources of information are. The older the sources are the more likely it is that the contents might be outdated and inaccurate.

Keep in mind that books, articles in magazines and newspapers and even official documentation can be just as false as internet sources.

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ARTICLE 20: Specifying the Limitation for Your Ph. D. or Masters Degree Research

18th Aug 2020 No Comments

Written by Dr. Hannes Nel

Introduction

There is no such thing as a perfect research report.

It is, nevertheless, human to have great ideas for your research.

It is also human not to achieve everything that you had in mind for your research.

What are limitations?

Do not confuse the “delimitation” of your research with “limitation”.

Delimitation would be setting boundaries for the scope of your research.

The limitations of your research are those characteristics of design or methodology that inhibit the validity, applicability, objectivity, generalizability or interpretation of the results of your findings.

Examples of possible limitations can include lack of access to data sources that you hoped to consult, lack of cooperation from participants in your research, time constraints, legislation, lack of access to research instruments, etc.

There are certain mistakes that you should not make in your research and that you, therefore, also should not list as limitations. Examples include not being motivated to work, wasting time unnecessarily, dishonesty, plagiarism, shoddy work, etc.

Limitations are mostly imposed from the outside. Flaws in your research report that can be attributed to you will probably not be accepted by your study leader as limitations. They are mostly things that you could or should have foreseen and you should have done contingency planning to avoid them from happening.

Acknowledging the limitations of your research

Acknowledging the limitations of your research shows that you have integrity and that you understand what you should have done, even if, for whatever reason, you did not manage to achieve perfection.

Nobody will know the shortcomings of your research better than you.

The limitations that you acknowledge should be tempered with reasonableness.

They should not be so extensive that your study becomes unimportant or not at an acceptable standard.

Failure to acknowledge the limitations of your research can render your research invalid and it can misdirect future research done by you or somebody else who is inspired by your work.

Sometimes you might be able to make up for limitations through assumptions.

Where to acknowledge the limitations of your research

Most universities will require you to acknowledge the limitations in the last chapter of your research report.

This makes sense because you cannot foresee most of the limitations before you have done your research.

It is a good idea to write down the limitations that you encounter from the start as you encounter them.

You can always delete some of them if you find a solution to the problem later.

Summary

The limitations of your research are the flaws in your research design or methodology that can damage the quality of your research project.

Limitations are mostly caused by external factors over which you have little or no control.

Internal factors, that is the omissions or mistakes that you are responsible for are mostly signs of poor research work and, therefore, mostly not acceptable.

Acknowledging the limitations of your research is a responsible and mature thing to do.

It might not improve the quality of your work but will help to render your work trustworthy, authentic and valid.

Acknowledging limitations does not free you, as a student, from having to submit quality work.

Although you will probably acknowledge the limitations of your work in the last chapter of your research report, you should write the limitations down while doing your research and immediately when you come across them.

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ARTICLE 19: The Scope of a Thesis or Dissertation

18th Aug 2020 No Comments

Written by Dr. Hannes Nel

Introduction

Hello, my name is Hannes Nel and I will discuss The Scope for a thesis or dissertation in this video.

Failure to limit the research problem/research question or hypothesis from the start can lead to you collecting a mass of information, much of which you will not be able to use.

Research design is typically a funnel-shaped process.

Although you should limit the scope of your research project, you should still collect a good amount of data.

Consequently, your initial scope will be broad. You will need to narrow this down as you progress with your research.

You need to eliminate irrelevant data while paying more attention to valid and valuable data.

Also, make sure that you collect relevant data.

To collect relevant data, you will need to use the most effective and efficient data collection methods and ask the right questions.

The scope of your research will also be influenced by how widely shared across the population for your research the knowledge, beliefs, behavior, interests and other data relevant to your research are.

The more data is shared in the population for your research, the more likely it is that people will respond the same to your questions.

Responses to more specific and personal issues, for example, unique events, individual experiences, or personal opinions will probably be more varied.

Although the scope for research in natural science will be focused on the purpose of your research, you will mostly also have a population, and a sample, upon which you will test your hypothesis.

Also, in natural science, the need for generalization will be much more pronounced than in the case of many social research projects.

The research scope is often determined by time constraints and the resources that you have available.

The more time and funds you have at your disposal, the more sophisticated data collection tools can you use.

And in natural science projects, you will probably need to do experiments as well.

The more time and funds you have available for research, the more and better quality data can you collect.

This does not mean that lots of time and resources are a precondition for doing quality research, especially for study purposes.

Creative researchers mostly manage to find the data that they need even with limited time and resources at their disposal.

Do not be too ambitious and select a topic that is too broad for university research purposes.

Students often choose a too broad scope for their research because they are concerned that they will not be able to write an “acceptable” number of pages.

After some initial reading, most students find that they have too much to write, and they do not want to lose any of the data that took them so much time and effort to collect.

That is why time spent on deciding on a realistic scope before your start doing research can make your work much easier and more efficient.

You will probably need to reduce the number of pages of your thesis or dissertation. Do not do this randomly. You must maintain the flow of your evidence and arguments.

Summary

You should collect a good amount of relevant data.

Start by collecting too much data rather than too little.

Refine the data that you collected for relevance and quality.

The availability of time and resources will largely determine how wide the scope for your research can be and how much data you will be able to collect.

Keep the scope of your research manageable, regardless of how much time and resources you have.

Planning your research well in advance will save you time and money.

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ARTICLE 18: How to Establish Objectives for Ph. D. or Masters Degree Research

16th Aug 2020 No Comments

Written by Dr. Hannes Nel

Introduction

Almost all professors at universities will tell you that you are expected to develop new knowledge, theories, processes, medication, etc. on the doctoral level.

This would be ideal. However, creating and adding value to the existing knowledge and skills often take much longer than it would take to do research for a Ph. D.

Sometimes scientists stumble upon new knowledge, new inventions, new medicines or processes purely by chance.

Mostly, however, new discoveries require systematic research and gradual progress over a long period.

The challenge is somewhat less in the case of a thesis for a master’s degree.

Even though you will not be required to develop new knowledge, theories, processes, etc. on master’s degree level, you will still need to conduct scientific research.

Therefore, study leaders and universities sometimes accept a dissertation or thesis because the students showed that they can do academic research on the postgraduate level.

Often universities accept a dissertation or thesis because they can see the potential of the student to conduct further research, perhaps as part of a research team of the university.

It is then that the student might develop something new.

Even though master’s degree students are not required to develop new knowledge and theory, they should still follow the research steps that I describe here to analyze and gain an understanding of complex theory, philosophy and practice.

Objectives for Ph. D. Research

Most students start with an idea, from which they will develop a topic, a title, a purpose, objectives and a research question, problem statement or hypothesis.

It would not be impossible to start at any point in this circle, depending on what you have been given or have identified.

These five elements are closely linked to your choice of research approach, research methods, paradigmatic approach, data collection methods, sampling methods, and data collection instruments.

The verb that you choose for your research objectives will largely determine which research approach you will follow.

The following are examples of possible research objectives:

To measure something.

You will probably follow a quantitative approach when measuring something.

The examples of things that need to be measured are endless.

Examples include rainfall, changes in temperature over a period and at different places, lengths, weights, etc.

To test something.

You will probably also follow a quantitative approach when testing something.

Medication can be tested, how people respond to treatment, the strength of concrete, the performance of people in many different fields, how people respond to certain impulses, events, etc.

To calculate something.

You will probably follow a quantitative approach when doing calculations.

Finances are often calculated for many different purposes.

Population numbers are counted, animal species after widespread fires in Australia, people who contracted and perhaps even perished because of the COVID-19 virus are examples of such calculations.

To compare.

You will most likely follow a quantitative approach to compare people, artefacts, etc.

Any competition has an element of comparison in it.

The performance of countries in almost any field can be compared.

Anything that can be measured can be compared to different places, times, etc.

To understand a real-world problem.

Understanding real-world problems mostly require following a qualitative approach.

It is used to understand any threat to the well-being and survival of people.

To build knowledge and theory.

Building knowledge and theory will mostly require making use of a qualitative approach.

It is guided by existing knowledge and theory to improve the existing knowledge and theory.

To develop interventions or programmes.

You will probably follow a qualitative approach to develop interventions or programmes.

Development might need to be measured, though.

To evaluate something.

Evaluation can require a quantitative or qualitative research approach.

Performance in a wide variety of fields is often evaluated to identify deficiencies and to achieve improvement.

Products, interventions, programmes, processes, conduct, etc. need to be evaluated.

Measuring quality is an example of this.

To inform a larger study.

Informing a larger study will mostly require a qualitative approach.

The larger study will probably be broken down into several small projects, each with its own objectives.

To identify.

Identifying people or phenomena will mostly require making use of a qualitative approach.

To explore.

Exploration will mostly be done through a qualitative approach.

Exploring phenomena or events is pretty much like a detective who would seek answers or causes of events.

To describe.

You will use a qualitative approach to describe something.

Here the biggest challenge is to achieve accuracy and validity.

To explain.

An explanation will require a qualitative approach.

You will need to delve deep into the thought processes of others.

You will also need to identify the causes of events or phenomena.

Summary

The purpose of your research will be the deciding factor if you should follow a quantitative or qualitative approach.

You will follow a quantitative approach if the achievement of your purpose will require statistical analysis and accurate evidence.

You will follow a qualitative approach if the achievement of your purpose will require descriptive work.

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