dissertation – Page 4

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ARTICLE 17: How to Find a Topic for Ph.D. or Master’s Degree Research

15th Aug 2020 No Comments

Written by Dr. Hannes Nel

Introduction

It is always advisable to identify a real need for improvement or new ideas that will require research.

The following are steps that you can take to find a research topic on the doctoral or master’s degree level:

Consider the research that you have already done.

Your thesis for a Master’s degree is a good starting point for further research.

It is probably something that you are interested in and have some good knowledge about.

Remember, if it is a Ph. D. that you are conducting research for, you will need to create new knowledge and skills.

Your own interests are a great source for finding a topic.

List your interests and rank them to find a topic that you are interested in.

Surf the internet for interesting topics.

Visit the library.

Consider current events.

Current news is probably important and already something that somebody else regarded as worth reporting on.

Discuss the news with friends and colleagues.

Listen to what they are afraid of, look forward to, etc.

Keep your eyes open and make a note of everyday observations.

Keep your eyes open and listen to what people talk about.

People often talk about their needs and fears.

Do not underestimate the value of your personal experiences.

Your personal experiences, challenges, disappointments and successes in life can be topics for research.

People often have similar experiences and they might need some assistance or guidance, which you can offer them.

Developing your research topic

You will probably need to develop a research topic even after you have found an idea that you like. Such an idea can be developed into a research topic by following seven steps:

Step 1: Select a general topic.

Sometimes somebody else might suggest a topic if you cannot find one.

A lecturer, a sponsor, a family member, a friend might suggest something.

It is not a good idea to choose and develop a topic that you know nothing about.

Step 2: List keywords to help you look for information about the topic.

Good keywords can save you lots of time and effort.

Keywords can generate new keywords.

Keywords can help you find more information on a topic on the internet, in a library or from a lecturer, family member or friend.

Step 3: Get an overview of the topic.

Improve and expand on the idea that you have.

In the beginning, you should collect anything that you can find on the topic of your research.

Do not throw away any information now already – you never know how your research might develop.

Information that does not look relevant now might turn out to be critically important later.

Besides the more you read about your topic the better will you understand it.

Step 4: Begin to focus the topic into something that you can cover well.

At some stage, you will need to narrow your research down to the important issues that relate to the purpose of the research.

Search for examples and important information – examples will help you with your fieldwork and information is necessary as a theoretical background.

Do not go for volume – focus on quality and relevance.

Step 5: Write a statement of purpose for the focused topic.

Your statement of purpose will guide you through your research.

Focus, focus, focus.

Your statement of purpose will motivate you, help you to formulate your problem statement, question or hypothesis, and help you to work systematically and efficiently.

Step 6: Create subtopic headings for the research.

Subtopics will help you organize your dissertation or thesis in such a manner that your arguments will flow smoothly toward the achievement of your purpose.

Keywords can often be used as subtopics.

You will probably change and delete subtopics as you progress with your research.

Step 7: Brainstorm questions about the focused topic.

Research teams often use brainstorming.

You can also do so, for example by organizing focus groups to discuss salient issues.

Summary

You can find a research topic from:

Your previous research.
Other people.
Your personal interest, experiences, observations.
The news.

Once you have decided on a topic, you will need to develop and refine it.

Formulate a purpose for your research.
Develop a research problem, research question or hypothesis.
Select keywords and use them to gather data.
Focus the topic to make your research viable.
Break your topic down further into subtopics.
Refine, restructure, add, delete.

You are now on your way with your research.

Remember to focus and to work in a spiral.

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ARTICLE 16: The Research Problem, Question or Hypothesis for a Ph. D. Dissertation or a Masters Degree thesis

14th Aug 2020 No Comments

Written by Dr. Hannes Nel

Introduction

Did you notice that some Ph. D. students formulate their research question, statement to impress rather than to explain?

A good research problem, question or hypothesis defines the focus of your research project.

The focus should, furthermore, be aimed at achieving the purpose of the research.

In the case of doctoral studies, the Postgraduate Committee will use the research problem, question or hypothesis to judge if your proposed research topic meets the requirements for research towards Ph. D.

You will need to narrow your research question, problem or hypothesis down to a project that you will be able to cope with, bearing in mind how much time and funds you have available for the research.

Keep in mind that research should always be the foundation for further research.

Let us refine and simplify an example of a research problem until we reach the point where it meets the requirements for viable research on the doctoral level.

What is the effect of global warming on social interaction?

A research question like this creates more questions than it solves.

It is vague and the effect of global warming on social interaction can be a multitude of possible things, for example, relationships in the classroom, at home, between married couples, between friends, clients versus salespeople, etc.
The effect of global warming on different continents, in different countries, different cultures, different seasons, etc. will probably not be the same.

Readers of your thesis or dissertation will probably ask: What is meant by social interaction?

You will need to explain and define the research question. However, even then it would be almost impossible to conclude generally applicable findings that will apply to the entire world and all people and times of the year.

Here is a second refinement of the research question:

What is the effect of global warming on the social interaction of people to work in metropolitan areas?

This research question already hints on possible economic value. It is limited to a specific type of living area and it would probably be possible to choose a representative sample for the research.

You should be careful of not formulating your research question in such a way that it renders your research subjective and biased.

For example, if you were to ask “Will global warming cause people working in metropolitan areas to lose interest in social interaction?” you might create the impression that you are of the opinion that global warming will cause people who work in metropolitan areas to lose interest in social interaction.

It might still be a workable problem to investigate, though. You can also reformulate your problem statement or question as a hypothesis, especially as the answer to your question might simply be “yes” or “no”. You might even be able to statistically prove your hypothesis as valid or not. Here you would probably use quantitative research and a technicist paradigmatic approach.

A hypothesis will be formulated somewhat differently from a research question or problem statement.

I will discuss more intricate examples of hypotheses in the videos on quantitative research methods.

You can avoid the dichotomous nature of this last example (the answer can only be “yes” or “no”) by formulating it something like this:

“What is the impact of global warming on the social interaction between people working in metropolitan areas?”

Regardless of how you formulate your research problem, question or hypothesis, you will still need to describe the context for your research.

The purpose of your research can also help to clarify your research question, problem or hypothesis.

The scope of your research can help you to know where to go, what to investigate and when to stop with your research.

Your research question, problem or hypothesis is not final if you did not submit your final dissertation or thesis yet.

However, keep in mind that it will become increasingly more difficult and riskier to change your research question, problem or hypothesis the longer you wait to do so.

Summary

A research question, statement or hypothesis gives you a good indication of which data you need to collect and which methods you will use to access and analyze your sources.

A well-articulated research question, statement or hypothesis provides you, your study leader and any other readers of your thesis or dissertation with valuable information about your research.

You need to explain the focus, purpose, scope and motivation for your research.

You also need to motivate your research question, problem or hypothesis clearly and objectively.

The rationale for your research question, statement or hypothesis can serve of evidence that your research project is viable.

You can change your research question, statement or hypothesis any time while you are still doing research. However, the longer you wait, the more incorrect data will you collect, and the more time will you waste on doing unnecessary work.

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ARTICLE 15: Creating a Draft for a Ph.D. Dissertation or a Masters Degree Thesis

13th Aug 2020 No Comments

Written by Dr. Hannes Nel

Introduction

In my previous article, I discussed writing a second chapter for your Ph. D. dissertation or master’s degree thesis.

It might sometimes be necessary to break the second chapter down into two or three chapters.

You will write many different versions for a draft thesis or dissertation, and you will continue reviewing what was probably just a structure in the beginning until you reach the point where you will have a final product.

But you need to start with the first draft.

The following seven steps will enable you to write a first draft.

Step 1: Make an outline of your headings

The outline should be an abbreviated picture of the parts of your dissertation or thesis.

You can use the outline as the scope of your dissertation, or perhaps your thesis if and when you need to defend your final submission.

The Table of Contents of your dissertation or thesis can serve as the outline.

Initially, you will start with just a framework. As you progress with your research, the framework will grow into your actual thesis or dissertation as well as the final table of contents for your dissertation or thesis.

The outline can help you prevent and identify flaws in the structure of the dissertation or thesis.

Step 2: Check your research statement, question or hypothesis

You will have written your research statement, question or hypothesis when you prepared your research proposal.

You can refocus the research statement, question or hypothesis at any point while writing your thesis or dissertation, if necessary.

You can also refocus it as often as you wish, although you should not do this indiscriminately.

Refocusing your research problem, question or hypothesis would be necessary if you were too ambitious when you decided on the scope for your research.

You will need to refocus your research problem, question or hypothesis if you run out of time.

However, your study leader will not take kindly to you running out of time if you dragged your feet.

Step 3: Write the body of your dissertation or thesis from your notes

This is where you will ensure that what you write flows logically.

You should check if all your ideas, arguments, evidence, figures and tables flow logically, much like the narrative for a novel.

In the old days, we used notecards for this.

Now we have computers that make the work much easier.

Step 4: Check that you cite all the information that you quoted from other sources with parenthetical citations

Parenthetical citations are where you recognize the authors of the text, statistics, etc. that you use in your dissertation or thesis.

You must cite your sources when using the following kinds of material, in whole or in part:

Direct quotations.
Paraphrased and reconstructed quotations. (Quotations of which you changed the original wording somewhat.)
Statistical data.
Images made by someone else.
Song lyrics.
Original ideas that belong to someone else.

I will discuss referencing methods in a future article.

Step 5: Write your introduction

The introduction normally has two parts:

A general introduction to the topic of your research.
Your research statement.

Step 6: Write your conclusions

You will write your conclusions after you have done the literature study and fieldwork.

Through the conclusions you should show:

The reader that the work is complete and well done.
That the research project has been brought to a logical and realistic end.
That you have made a positive contribution to the field of your study.

You can restate your research problem, question or hypothesis here.

You can also summarize your main points of evidence here.

Step 7: Create a title page

You can prepare the title page at any stage while doing your research and writing your report.

Here you must prepare the title page according to the format and requirements of the university or faculty where you study.

Reviewing your draft dissertation or thesis

You can and probably will submit chapters or perhaps just sections that your study leader would like to see from time to time.

However, do not submit what you might regard as a final product unless you feel proud of the work that you did.

You should feel confident that your study leader will be satisfied with your work, so much so that you are looking forward to his or her feedback.

And even though you might expect to be showered with praise, you need to realize that the opposite might still happen. Be prepared for what you might regard as cruel, unfair and unnecessary criticism.

This is when you will need to show character. Now is the time when you will need to show that you can persevere.

Do not blame your study leader for not being as impressed with your work as you are. Listen, or read, the feedback carefully and give yourself time to think about it, to absorb it and to decide how you can benefit from the disappointment.

You can and should pre-empt negative feedback by evaluating and correcting your work even before your study leader tells you to do so.

Here are nine questions that you can ask of your work to find opportunities for improvement:

Is it necessary to introduce new material, data, ideas and thinking? If yes, then find the additional content and include it.
Did you include arguments or information in your dissertation or thesis that adds no value because it is not relevant to the purpose of your research? If so, remove such padding from your report.
Is there data or arguments that you included early in your report that later proved to be outdated or irrelevant?
Is there more recent and relevant data or arguments in a later chapter or chapters? Remove obsolete data and arguments.
Can you find any cognitive mistakes in any of your arguments, conclusions, assumptions or recommendations? If so, remove the errors or correct them.
Is the structure of your chapters or sections in chapters erratic? Good software, such as ATLAS.Ti can often solve the problem. Sometimes logical thinking can also do wonders for the flow of your report.
Did you respond negatively, aggressively or immaturely to feedback from your study leader, assistant study leader or perhaps even one or more external examiners? Apologize and thank them for their assistance. Correct your errors and inform them how you used their feedback to improve your work.
Did you repeat theoretical data, arguments, etc. in your dissertation or thesis? Even simple office software, like Microsoft Word, can find the repetition of sentences if you suspect that you repeated a statement and “ask” the software to find it.
Did you, at any stage while writing your dissertation or thesis, use a research method or paradigm incorrectly? It can happen that you “drifted” from one research method or paradigm to different, more suitable ones. This is not always wrong, but if the research methods or paradigmatic approaches contradict one another you will need to correct the error.

Probably all research topics on the doctoral level are of such a nature that the perfectionist will never be satisfied with the report. There will always be something that needs improvement.

You must draw the line somewhere, even if the temptation to just do this and that more might be strong.

Summary

The structure that you will prepare when you start with your research is already a first draft.

You can use the seven steps that I discussed to prepare your first draft.

You will end up writing and saving many versions of your dissertation or thesis until you reach the point where you are satisfied that you have achieved the purpose of your research project.

You can and should review and improve your draft report intuitively by correcting flaws when you identify them.

You can improve your product further by asking and answering the nine questions that I discussed.

Do not become trapped in a never-ending process of review and further research.

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ARTICLE 14: How to Write the Second Plus Chapters of your Thesis or Dissertation.

12th Aug 2020 No Comments

Written by Dr. Hannes Nel

Introduction

I will discuss chapters 2, 3 and 4 as one unit in this article because they belong together.

The literature review can be more than one chapter, depending on the topic of your research and the amount of theory that is needed.

You can, for example, have a chapter on the literature study that you did in preparation for the oral presentation of your research proposal and a second chapter on the literature study that you did when you did additional literature study after your proposal was accepted and you embarked on the real research.

You could also have explained the research approach for your study proposal in your first chapter already.

Remember that you will not prepare or present a research proposal on the master’s degree level.

Also, the layout of your thesis can be less structured than the layout for a dissertation.

However, it would be a good idea to follow the layout for a dissertation when you write a thesis for two reasons:

Firstly, it is a structure that has been proven to facilitate scientific research.
Secondly, it is a good opportunity for you to practice doing structured research. After all, you will embark on doctoral studies after having obtained a master’s degree, not so?

You can also explain the research methods that you used for the initial literature study as part of Chapter 2 and have a separate chapter dealing with the literature study and practical data collection processes as a third chapter.

Chapter 1 can deal with the context for your study and some of the contents of your oral presentation, or it can deal with the context for your study only.

You can explain your research approach for the literature study and field research in the second chapter. Alternatively, chapter 2 can deal with just the literature study for your oral presentation. You can also explain your research approach for the literature study in preparation for your oral presentation as well as the literature study after your research proposal has been accepted in chapter 2.

You can discuss the fieldwork that you did in Chapter 3 as a first or third option. As a second option, you can discuss your literature study as well as fieldwork in chapter 3 if you did not discuss your literature study in chapter 2 already.

In essence, you will need to describe your research approach for the literature study prior to presenting your research proposal, the theoretical content that you will research after your research proposal has been approved and the fieldwork that you will do.

You should identify as much as possible theoretical information on similar research that was previously done, knowledge captured in books and other sources of information and related knowledge that might be of value for your research.

Reasons why you will need to study literature:

To prepare for an oral presentation of your research proposal.
To familiarize yourself with the knowledge and to determine if it relates to your research.
To dispel myths about the field of study.
To explain competing conceptual frameworks.
To clarify the focus of your research.
To justify your assumptions.

You should satisfy the following questions in your literature review:

Are there sources relevant to the topic of your research?
If there are sources, what do they say about the nature and the development of the topic? (Ontology and epistemology.)
How are the issues researched in the existing literature?
How detail and complete are the literature on the topic?

(Are the points made in the literature elicited and synthesized, or just paraphrased?)

How does the literature interpret the concepts and issues on the topic?
Does the review clearly indicate when sources are being quoted? (Is it the work of the writers or did they borrow it from somebody else?)
Are sources adequately referenced?
Do you agree with the existing literature on the topic?

You will need to summarise the existing theory about the topic as a last section of the chapter or chapters.

If your study is just a literature study – you will move on to conclusions and recommendations at the end of this chapter.

That would mean that you will not need to do any fieldwork or experiments.

Summary

It is essential to do as much literature study as you possibly can for two main reasons:

To prepare for your oral study proposal. This, of course, applies to the doctoral level.
To serve as the foundation of the research that you will embark on.

Preparing this chapter or chapters might require many hours of hard work.

This will enable you to plan your research properly.

Close

Logically I should discuss doing fieldwork as a next chapter, followed by a recommended solution, and then the synthesis and evaluation of the study.

However, there are so many possible research methods, data collection methods and methods to analyse data that I will have to discuss all of them one by one.

In addition, there are a host of other issues, for example, the paradigms, ontology, epistemology, etc. that you should be able to use in the last two or three chapters of your thesis or dissertation.

In a way, this is a kind of literature study of the concepts that you need to be familiar with before you will be able to conduct practical research.

Therefore, I will discuss creating a draft thesis or dissertation in my next post.

Let me know if you have any issues that you need clarity on urgently. From this point onwards it is not critically important that we stick to a set sequence in which to discuss further issues.

I can easily interrupt my planned articles to discuss urgent questions first.

Good luck with your studies.

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ARTICLE 13: How to Write the First Chapter of Your Thesis or Dissertation.

11th Aug 2020 No Comments

Written by Dr. Hannes Nel

Introduction

Most universities will allow you to choose a name for your first chapter.

It can simply be “Introduction”.

You can also choose a more descriptive name of the contents of the chapter, for example, “Contextualising the Study.”

Some universities might even allow you to insert a Preface before your first chapter.

You should check with the university first before you add a separate preface to your thesis or dissertation.

I will share a few thoughts on the preface near the end of this post for the sake of clarity.

Each chapter in your thesis or dissertation should have its own introduction, but that is not what I will discuss here, so don’t get confused.

Writing the first chapter is the launchpad for writing a thesis or dissertation.

It points the writing process in the direction it should go and lay out what your research project should achieve.

The following are possible headings for your first chapter:

Introduction. It might be confusing if you include an introduction to a chapter called “Introduction”, but that should not be a serious problem.

You can discuss the following issues in the introduction:

Your problem statement, problem question or hypothesis.
Clarify the problem statement, question or hypothesis.
Background information on the field in which the study will be conducted.
You should narrow the wider scope (the background information) down to a viable target group or target area.
Explain why the problem or hypothesis is important.
Introduce and develop the topic for your research.
Introduce the title for your thesis or dissertation.
Statement of objectives
1. Break the purpose down into objectives and objectives into sub-objectives or tasks.
1. This breakdown can be useful when you need to prepare questions for interviews or questionnaires that you intend to send to members of your target group.
Definition of related concepts
1. Concepts and words are often understood and used differently by different academics.
1. It will often be impossible to determine what the right meanings are.
1. Therefore, do your homework to determine as accurately as you possibly can what the concepts and words that you will use mean and then explain how you will use them.
The motivation for the study
1. You need to explain why you wish to investigate the problem of your choice.
Current knowledge of the problem
1. Most universities will not even allow you to enroll for doctoral or master studies if you cannot show that you have enough prior knowledge of the topic of your research.
Potential benefits of the research
1. You need to explain who will benefit from your research as well as how they will benefit.
1. This can be integrated with your motivation for the study.
Ethical issues
1. You need to conduct your research and write your report in a manner that will be acceptable to any reasonable person and that does not transgress any legislation, rules or regulations.
1. The university will require you to confirm in writing that this is the case.
The structure of your study
1. The structure of your research will depend on the university requirements, the research approach, research methods, paradigms, data collection methods and data analysis methods that you will use.
1. Your personal style will also play a role.
Summary of Chapter 1
1. Each of your chapters needs to have an introduction and a summary.
1. You can add conclusions and recommendations that you gained from the chapter here.
1. Cutting and pasting sections from the body of the chapter is not a summary – it is an extract.
1. The summary should not contain new information.
1. It will, therefore, be unlikely that you will acknowledge sources in the summary.
1. You should summarise the chapter in such a way that all the important facts and arguments are given in a concise manner.

The preface

Some universities will allow you to include a preface before your first chapter.

You will probably only write the preface after the thesis or dissertation has been completed.

Or you can write the preface while you are writing the rest of your report.

A preface is usually a combination of disparate elements, necessary for the clarification of aspects of the work, but not necessarily concerned with the development of the argument.

Some claim that a good preface consists of three distinct parts – a general presentation of the research problem, the purpose of the research, and stating your position in terms of your capacity and limitations to do the research.

All of this can also be included in the first chapter.

Be careful of not using the preface to rationalize.

Do not use the preface to make excuses for not submitting quality work. If that is the case, no preface can save you – your study leader and external examiners will see that your work is not up to standard.

You may wish or need to supply information on the historical or literary background of your research topic, intellectual climate and biographical material relevant to a fuller understanding and appreciation of the research material.

Do not use the preface to put the blame for your challenges on your family, your employer, study leader, the university, the world.

Summary

The first chapter of your thesis or dissertation prepares the reader for the scientific argumentation and evaluation of the information that you will gather and analyse.

You should use the first chapter to contextualise your study.

It explains the importance of your research topic, how you will investigate the problem or hypothesis that you formulated, the area and target group for your research and what your research project should achieve.

Although you will need to show what you expect to achieve, you need to guard against showing that you have already decided what the results of your research will be.

You need to be objective and conduct research with an open mind.

Some universities will allow you to include a preface before your first chapter. The best way to write a preface is to write it while you write your thesis or dissertation.

Go back to the preface when you think of something that you desperately need to write but that does not fit into the structure and layout of your thesis or dissertation.

Do not use the preface for anything that might damage your end-product.

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ARTICLE 11: The Table of Contents of your Thesis or dissertation

9th Aug 2020 No Comments

Written by Dr. Hannes Nel

Introduction

I discuss the layout of a table of contents for a thesis or dissertation in this article. In the beginning, the table of contents will be more a structure for a table of contents than a final one.

You will probably have decided which chapters to include in your report, but you will have only one or two lower-level headings. Also, you might need to add a small number of chapters as you progress with your research.

The table of contents should follow directly after the authentication of your work.

Once you have written your thesis or dissertation, you will probably delete the provisional structure for a table of content and replace it with the chapters, headings and sub-headings of your final thesis or dissertation. Keep in mind that your table of contents must not differ from the chapters, headings and sub-headings in your thesis or dissertation.

At the end of your table of contents, you should also have the references that you consulted, a list of figures and a list of tables.

Universities are mostly flexible about the structure of a table of contents for a thesis on the master’s degree level. There are certain chapters and topics that you must cover in the dissertation for a Ph. D.

Also, keep in mind that the thesis for a master’s degree is a good opportunity to practice for when you will write the dissertation for a Ph. D. It will not be wrong to follow the structure of a dissertation when writing the report on the master’s degree level.

Here is a list of the most basic headings that most universities will expect you to discuss in your dissertation:

Title page.
Confirmation of authenticity.
Acknowledgments.
Abstract.
Chapter 1: Contextualising the Study.
Chapter 2: Research Methodology.
Chapter 3: Theoretical Background.
Chapter 4: Data Collection and Analysis.
Chapter 5: Synthesis and Evaluation of the Study.
References.
List of Figures.
List of Tables.

The title page. I already discussed the title page, sometimes also called the cover page, in a previous article (article 5). Just take note that this is where it will fit into your thesis or dissertation.

Confirmation of authenticity. You will be required by the university to confirm that the contents of your thesis or dissertation are your own. Most universities, if not all, use a standard format for such confirmation.

Here is an example:

“I, (your full names and surname) declare that (the title of your thesis or dissertation) is my own work and that all the sources that I have used or quoted have been indicated and acknowledged by means of complete references.

(Your signature)

…………………………………”

Acknowledgments. Acknowledgments are a matter of choice.

However, it is only good manners to thank people who helped you with your research.

The acknowledgment has real value for your research, though.

It shows the readers of your report that you conducted your research in a systematic, ethical and disciplined manner.
It shows that you understand that research should not be done by one person only.

Abstract. The abstract is a mandatory summary of your thesis or dissertation. Not all universities will require you to write an abstract for a thesis. The abstract must be short – you will be required to summarise your thesis or dissertation in three or four pages.

Some readers, for example, your sponsors, might read only the abstract. Therefore, you will need to ensure that you cover all the questions that they might have.

Chapter 1: Contextualising the Study. Researchers making use of technicist research methods often claim that their findings and the principles and concepts that they develop are timeless and that it applies independently of context.

Even they, however, need to define the range and scope of their research – they will not be able to include the entire world, let alone the entire universe, in their research projects.

Chapter 2: Research Methodology. In this chapter you will discuss:

The research approach that you will use.
The research methods that you will use.
The paradigmatic approaches that you will follow.
The data collection methods that you will use.
How you will analyse the data that you collect.

Chapter 3: Theoretical Background. You will probably need to do a literature study as a foundation for your research. It would be rather difficult to jump into data collection and the analysis of data if you do not know what you should be looking for.

Chapter 4: Data Collection and Analysis. You already discussed the data collection and analysis methods that you will use in Chapter 2 of your dissertation. Here you will need to discuss the actual processes of data collection and analysis. This is a critically important chapter and might even be broken down into two or three separate chapters. It is from the contents of this chapter that you will come to conclusions and findings from which to develop a solution to the problem that you investigated.

Chapter 5: Synthesis and Evaluation of the Study. Chapter 5 will normally be your final chapter. This is where you will describe your solution. Depending on the purpose of your research and the research approach and methods that you used, you might develop a model, new knowledge, new methods to combat oil pollution at sea, new medication, and many more.

References. All sources that you consulted must be acknowledged in your thesis or dissertation.

Universities invariably have prescriptions in this regard, and you should abide by them.

I will discuss referencing formats in a future article.

List of Figures and List of Tables. The lists of figures and tables follow directly after the table of contents.

One can regard it as part of the table of contents.

The figure and table numbers in the lists must be the same as in the content of the thesis or dissertation.

Different universities have different requirements for the layout and format of the lists of figures and tables, although most are flexible in this respect.

Summary

Your provisional table of contents will probably be just a structure, consisting of chapters with no lower-level headings.

Your actual and final table of contents must align exactly with the contents of your thesis or dissertation.

I will discuss the abstract, chapters, references, lists of figures and tables in more detail in separate articles following on this one.

Good luck with your studies and stay healthy and safe.

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ARTICLE 9: The Nature and Structure of a Dissertation for a Ph. D. or a Thesis for a Master’s Degree

7th Aug 2020 No Comments

Written by Dr Hannes Nel

Introduction

Before we discuss the nature and structure of a Ph.D. or master’s degree research report, I need to point out that research on especially the doctoral level is not about just writing an essay. It is hard and complex work, but the rewards are most certainly worth the effort.

Conducting research and writing a report is like the seafarers of old and the astronauts of today who, as the old space science movie used to begin, “venture where no one else has ventured before”.

You will enjoy interesting and exciting discoveries.

Sometimes you might weep because of what you discover.

At other times you will jump for joy.

It is, indeed, a roller coaster ride that I hope you will enjoy.

Let’s board the ship.

Characteristics of a dissertation or thesis

A dissertation should show the following characteristics:

The topic can be highly complex but need not be so.
The content will be highly specialized in a highly complex area of expertise.
The scope can be extensive or at least apply to a realistic community or geographical area.
Analysis of data will require sophisticated analytical processes.
Recognised research approaches, methods and paradigms should be used.
The report should be 30,000 to 70,000 words in length.
The bibliography can include generic and specific sources.
More than 130 sources should be consulted.
Some universities might be flexible about the characteristics of a dissertation.

A research report for a masters degree should show the following characteristics:

The topic will probably be complex.
The content will be specialized but probably not generally applicable.
The scope can be broad in terms of the subject and geographical area to which it applies.
Analysis of data can require the use of complex analytical processes.
Any recognised research approaches, methods and paradigms can be used, depending on the scope, context and purpose of the research.
The thesis should be 20,000 to 50,000 words in length.
The bibliography can include generic and specific sources. An advanced level of existing knowledge of the topic and problem should be evident.
70 to 130 sources should be consulted.
Some universities might be flexible about the characteristics of a thesis.

The research design

You should design your dissertation or thesis in such a way that it will satisfy the purpose of your research.

Although the design will consist of several headings or steps, it does not mean that you will follow a linear process. You will inevitably need to return to previous work, construct and reconstruct until you achieve an acceptable level of complexity, validity, authenticity and reliability.

The design will be linear, but the research process is always a spiral.

Most of all, however, you will need to achieve the purpose of your research.

In the case of doctoral studies, your research design will probably move from underlying philosophical assumptions and theoretical knowledge to new knowledge and a solution to a problem.

Even though the basic structure of a research report is prescribed by universities, all of them will allow a measure of flexibility by allowing you to add chapters. Omitting chapters that the university asks for might be risky because you might leave out important steps in the writing of the report or in the research process.

Changes in the internal or external environment, new information, unforeseen obstacles and unexpected opportunities to improve your work can move, perhaps even force you to change the structure and layout of your research report.

Research is not just about collecting and interpreting data. It is also a process by means of which you would manage change. That is why your design should be flexible.

Never pad, i.e. never include data in your report that is not relevant to the purpose of your research. Study leaders are experienced educators and they will not be impressed by volume. Quality is what they are looking for.

Structure your dissertation or thesis, including the chapters, subsections, paragraphs and even sentences in such a manner that they logically flow from the problem to the solution.

The design of your dissertation or thesis will depend on your research skills, the topic of the research and what the university prescribes. It should include which type of research you will conduct. Your research can be exploratory, descriptive or explanatory.

Exploratory research is research on a concept, people, or situation that you, as the researcher, know little about. You will typically use observation, interviews and content analysis to do exploratory research.

Descriptive research is research on a concept, people or situation that you know something about and about which you wish to describe what you have found or observed. Descriptive studies lend themselves well to a combination of quantitative and qualitative research approaches.

Explanatory research involves testing a hypothesis and coming to one or more conclusions about the validity of your hypothesis. The topic of the research is often something that has not been researched properly before. For explanatory research, you might use quantitative studies and hypothesis testing or the pursuance of a problem statement or question.

The scale and scope determine the boundaries of the design.

The boundaries put the problem statement or hypothesis into perspective.

You will also need to acknowledge the limitations of your research process. Some universities will allow you to overcome limitations with assumptions. Be careful of using assumptions in your research. It can damage the validity of your findings and the reliability of your recommendations.

Acknowledging that you are developing or deconstructing the findings of somebody else will lend validity and authenticity to your work.

Be modest about your claims to the originality of your work.

Do not underestimate the quality of research done by academics before you.

Do not regard quotations from the work of other researchers as a substitute for sound arguments by you.

Do not be jealous of the work of other researchers. You can often use their work as a corroboration of your own.

Regarding the structure of your research report, it should have the following elements:

The title page.
The table of contents.
A list of figures and tables.
The abstract.
Confirmation of authenticity.
Acknowledgments.
The preface or introduction.
The chapters.
Bibliography and references.
Appendices.

Summary

Research design is the blueprint according to which you will conduct your research.

Accept that change will occur while you do your research. Accept this as an opportunity rather than an obstacle.

Consult as many sources of data as you can find, but guard against trying to include too many research methods, paradigms and data collection methods in your research.

The insights that you offer must be your own.

Remember that scrupulous honesty is as important in small matters as in large.

Enjoy your studies. Hard work will bring you good luck.

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ARTICLE 4: The Difference Between a Research Report on the Honours, the Masters and the Doctoral Level

1st Aug 2020 No Comments

Written by Dr. Hannes Nel

Introduction

In this article, I will share with you some differences between research reports on the honours, masters and the doctoral level.

Not all universities have the same requirements for research reports on different levels.

They do not even always agree about the requirements for a research report on the same level.

Therefore, my purpose with this post is to give you a “feel” for the difference between research reports on the honours, masters and the doctoral level.

The topic

The topic for an honours degree should be simple.

You should investigate a real problem and find a solution that applies in a specific context.

An example, of such a topic, is to identify a process by means of which to deal with stress in a crisis such as the COVID-19 pandemic.

On the master’s degree level, the topic should be more complex.

You might, for example, conduct a scientific analysis of the factors that cause stress, the effect of such stress on people’s health and behaviour, and possible preventive actions.

On the doctoral level, your research should be highly complex. You will need to develop new knowledge and procedures, for example, the development of a new medication.

Relevance to profession and society

Research on the honours degree level will have limited specialization in a specific area of expertise.

Your research on how to manage stress might, for example, be restricted to psychological observations of a limited number of cases only.

For research on the master’s degree level, you will probably specialize in a complex area of expertise. Here your focus can, for example, shift from identifying the causes and effects of stress to physiological changes in the body caused by stress.

A high degree of specialization in a highly complex area of expertise would be typical of research on the doctoral level. Finding an effective vaccine against the COVID-19 virus is an example. However, research on the psychological causes and effects of the pandemic, the impact of the pandemic on the economy of a nation, etc. can also be investigated on the doctoral level.

The nature of the research problem

Research on the honours degree level will mostly cover a small number of dimensions, for example, the impact of stress on communication, work performance, and personal relationships.

Research on the master’s degree level will be more complex and can include multiple dimensions. You might, for example, conduct research on the impact of stress in the workplace, at home, how it impacts on children, male adults, and female adults.

Research on the doctoral level should be highly complex and multi-dimensional. You will probably focus more on a community, perhaps even a nation or country, rather than just the impact of stress on specific dimensions. You research will enable you to identify dimensions rather than for you to you decide on dimensions to investigate in advance.

The scope of your research

The scope of research on the honours degree level should be limited in terms of the subject and geographical area. You might investigate something as small as just a playground for children in a suburb.

The scope of your research on the master’s degree level can be broad in terms of the subject and the geographical area. You might, for example, do research on the value of playgrounds in general for reducing the stress that children experience during a period of lockdown.

The scope for research on the doctoral level can be extensive in terms of the subject and the geographical area. You can, for example, do research on ways in which to reduce the stress experienced by children during periods of lockdown in a country. It is possible that your findings can apply wider than the country on which you did the research. However, time and financial constraints might make it impossible for you to confirm your findings wider than one or two neighbouring countries.

Accessibility of data

Data for research on the honours degree level should be simple and should not display complex interrelationships or require complex analytical processes. It should be easy to identify direct cause and effect. For example, the reasons why children are stressed can be obtained through observation or interviewing parents.

Data for research on the master’s degree level will be complex, showing interrelationships that require complex analytical processes. It might, for example, be necessary to link stressful behaviour to existing psychological theories and principles.

Data for research on the doctoral level will be highly complex, as will be the interrelationships that need to be analyzed. Such data can serve as the foundation for new theories and knowledge.

Research methodology

A variety of research methods can be used for research on the honours, the master’s and the doctoral degree level, including qualitative, quantitative, historical, case study, experimental, and causal-comparative research. The topic and purpose of the research will decide which research method or methods should be used.

Length of the research report

An assignment on the honours degree level should be between 12,000 and 16,000 words. That is 60 to 100 A4 pages.

A thesis on the master’s degree level should be between 20,000 and 50,000 words or 100 to 250 A4 pages.

A dissertation on the doctoral level should be between 30,000 and 70,000 words or 150 to 350 A4 pages.

Bibliography

The bibliography on the honours degree level should be generic and specific. This means that the knowledge of the topic should be evident and obtainable from general sources of information, for example, books, magazines, the internet, interviews, questionnaires, etc.

25 to 70 sources of information should be enough.

The bibliography on the master’s degree level should be more advanced, although the same sources as for research on the honours degree level will often provide the required data.

70 to 130 sources of information should be enough.

The bibliography on the doctoral level will mostly be highly specialized. Such data will serve as the foundation for the development of new data. New data will often be an extension of existing knowledge.

More than 130 sources of information will probably be needed to achieve the purpose of the research.

The format of the thesis or dissertation

The research report on all levels must be formal.

The university will have specific requirements in this regard.

You should not deviate from the university’s requirements without the permission of your study leader.

Linguistic and literary quality

The linguistic and literary quality must be correct and appropriate to the topic and level of the study.

It is always a good idea to have your research thesis or dissertation language edited by a linguistic expert and a must if the language in which you write your report is not your first language.

Contribution to scientific knowledge

An assignment on the honours degree level and a thesis the master’s degree level should serve as an enhancement of the existing knowledge.

A basic measure of original thought should be evident.

A dissertation on the doctoral level should be a significant contribution to scientific knowledge. It should show insight into the subject of your study. It should also show that you can apply a high level of independent and original thought.

Assessment of the research report

An assignment on the honours degree level and a thesis on the master’s degree level will be given a mark, which can be a percentage or just a symbol.

You can be awarded a distinction for your effort.

Marks are not given for a dissertation on the doctoral level. The assumption is that a dissertation on the doctoral level must be worthy of distinction to meet the requirements for a Ph. D.

Close and summary

Research on the honours degree level can be basic.

It is often a form of action research.

Research on the master’s degree level should be more complex than on the honours degree level.

The development of new knowledge is not required.

Research on the doctoral level will inevitably be highly complex.

New knowledge and procedures should be developed, although universities are often satisfied if the student can demonstrate the ability to conduct highly complex research.

Regardless of the level of research, research reports are judged on technical competence, evidence of scholarly research, critical ability, comprehension of the relevant theoretical issues, clarity, and coherence.

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ARTICLE 5: How to Structure a Title Page for a Master’s Degree or a Ph. D. Research Report

1st Aug 2020 No Comments

Written by Dr. Hannes Nel, D. Com, D. Phil

Introduction

In this post, I will share with you several hints on the title page for a Ph. D. or masters degree research report.

Just before we discuss the format of the title page – It is not possible to use terminology with which all universities will agree.

Some call the report submitted for a Ph. D. a dissertation, others call it a thesis. It is also called a doctorate.

The same applies to a research report for a master’s degree.

I will refer to the research report as a thesis on the master’s degree level and a dissertation on Ph. D. level.

I will use “research report” when referring to both the thesis and the dissertation.

Some universities call the person who applies for doctoral or masters studies a student or prospective student, others call him or her a candidate. In a relativist spirit, I will just use what feels right.

The study leader is sometimes also called the promoter or the supervisor. In a more structuralist spirit, I will stick to ‘study leader’.

A title page for your research report

I deliberately decided to discuss the title page for a research report and not just the title, because the title page includes the title.

There are several other issues of the title page that I would also like to bring to your attention.

The layout and wording of the title page for a research report might differ slightly from the title page for the research proposal. This is also something about which universities do not always agree, although the differences in the layout are mostly subtle.

As I said in my previous post, members of the Postgraduate Committee might suggest a different title from the one that you suggest.

If you chose a study leader before applying for post-graduate studies, she or he will probably help you with the formulation of the title.

The title of your research proposal, once refined, can be the same as the one that you will use for your final research report.

Here is an example of a title page for a research proposal.

An Epistemological Explanation of the Migration of the Ontology of Functionalism that can be Attributed to the Erosion of the Epistemological Development of Society from a Foucauldian Perspective

Please note that the title given here is in many ways flawed.

I deliberately did this so that we can use it as an example of how you should refine the title.

Let us analyse and refine the title.

To begin with, the title is too long. We will need to shorten it.

There are too many pompous words in the title.

“Epistemological explanation” is a tautology. Epistemology ís the explanation of something. The student should omit either “epistemological” or “explanation” or rephase the sentence entirely.

Even “migration” can probably be replaced by something like “change”.

Using “epistemology” twice in the title makes it sound awkward. The student should lose the second “epistemology”.

Ontology will probably be the right word to use if it is the student’s purpose to do research on the changed meaning of Functionalism as a paradigm over time. She or he could have explained this in the body of the proposal or could have used a simpler word, for example, the “original meaning”.

Michel Foucault’s philosophy is said to be post-structuralist in nature, or perhaps even post-modernist. He, however, does not agree. It would be rather risky to use his philosophy as the foundation for your research title if you are not sure that his philosophy is even relevant to your study.

Lastly, it would be difficult to come to conclusions and to suggest recommendations that would apply to the entire world. Different countries and even continents differ in terms of culture, geography, politics, levels of development, etc. It would, furthermore, be impossible to conduct research globally because of time, financial and physical constraints.

Here is a suggested title that would eliminate the flaws in the original one:

An analysis of the changes in the value system and structure of the Namibian society since independence.

The meaning of the original title has changed in the sense that it now refers to a much narrower context.

Some universities might require you to use some more technical or scientific terms, perhaps just to lend some status to the title of your research.

In my opinion, however, the status of your research should come from the quality of your research and not from window-dressing.

Close and summary

In summary, check the requirements for a title page of the university where you study or plan to study.

Ask your study leader for examples of good title pages and copy their layout.

Keep the title of your research report short and simple, but also listen to the suggestions of the Postgraduate Committee and your study leader.

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ARTICLE 3: How to Structure your Research Proposal for a Ph. D.

30th Jul 2020 No Comments

Written by Dr. Hannes Nel, D. Com, D. Phil

Introduction

In my previous post, I shared with you some hints on how to write your research proposal and how to present it orally.

In this post, I will share with you some ideas on how to structure your research proposal so that the Research Committee will be convinced that your idea is a good one.

There is no synergy between universities about the meaning of a dissertation versus a thesis.

Most dictionaries call a research report on Ph. D. level a dissertation, and a research report on masters degree level a thesis.

These are the meanings that I will use in this and all my other posts on research methodology.

The structure of your research proposal

Most universities will require you to cover the following in your research proposal:

A title for your dissertation.
Table of contents.
The context of the research.
The goals of your study.
Research approaches and methods.
The table of content for your dissertation.
Bibliography.
Endnotes and footnotes.

What you write and discuss under each of these eight points will determine if your application to study for a Ph. D. will succeed or not.

I, therefore, will discuss each point separately in future posts.

For now, I will just mention a few salient issues to remember.

Let us look at the eight points.

A title for your dissertation

The title for your dissertation should be brief and descriptive.

Members of the Postgraduate Committee or your study leader, if you already have one, might suggest a different title.

The title can change at any time during your studies.

You will need to check if the title is still valid with your study leader from time to time.

Table of contents

The table of contents is an overview of all the topics that you will cover in your research proposal.

The context of the research

The context of your research should also be the scope or limits of your research.

Context is always relevant to postgraduate research and it will largely determine if your proposed study is viable.

The goals of your study

The goals and purpose of your study will determine the value of your research.

This section should start with the purpose of your research followed by the goals that you hope to achieve.

Research approaches and methods

Your research approach can be quantitative, qualitative or mixed.

Your choice of research approach and method will depend on your personal preference, research skills and the topic of your research.

You will probably also indicate which paradigmatic approach or approaches you will follow here.

The table of content for your dissertation

The table of contents should provide an outline of your chapters.

It can also serve as the scope for your research.

Bibliography

Your bibliography cannot be complete and final yet.

You will need to consult many more data sources when you start doing serious research.

You should list the sources that you already consulted and the sources that you believe you will consult.

Endnotes and footnotes

You will not have a heading for endnotes and footnotes.

They are used to explain terminology, to make incidental comments or to amplify or corroborate a point of argument.

Close

In summary, do not underestimate the importance of preparing for the oral presentation of your study proposal.

What you write and present will determine if the university will allow you to study for a Ph. D.

You need to know what you should discuss, and you need to do it well.

That is why I will share with you in future posts hints on how to write and present every issue that you need to cover in your study proposal.

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