research methods – Page 3

ARTICLE 89: Research Methods for Ph. D. and Master’s Degree Studies: Data Analysis, Part 2 of 7

1st Dec 2020 No Comments

Written by Dr. Hannes Nel

Hello, I am Hannes Nel and I discuss comparative and content analysis in this article.

Although quite simple, comparative and content analysis are most valuable for your research towards a master’s degree or a Ph. D.

It does not matter what the topic of your research is – you will compare concepts, events or phenomena and you will study the content of existing data sources.

What you need to know, is how to analyse and use such data.

Comparative analysis

Comparative analysis is a means of analysing the causal contribution of different conditions to an outcome of interest. It is especially suitable for analysing situations of causal complexity, that is, situations in which an outcome may result from several different combinations of causal conditions. The diversity, variety and extent of an analysis can be increased, and the significance potential of empirical data can be improved through comparative analysis. The human element plays an important role in comparative research because it is often human activities and manifestations that are compared.

Although theoretical abstractions from reality can be and, in some instances are the only way in which to do valid comparison, the units of analysis can also be whole societies or systems within societies. Comparative research does not simply mean comparing different societies or the same society over time – it might involve searching systematically for similarities and differences between the cases under consideration.

Comparative researchers usually base their research on secondary sources, such as policy papers, historical documents or official statistics, but some degree of interviewing and observation could also be involved. A measure of verification is achieved by consulting more than one source on a particular issue.

Qualitative research approaches are most suitable for the conduct of comparative analysis, with the result that many paradigmatic approaches can be used. Examples include behaviourism, critical race theory, critical theory, ethnomethodology, feminism, hermeneutics and many more.

Content analysis

Content analysis is a systematic approach to qualitative data analysis, making it suitable to serve as the foundation of qualitative research software. It is an objective and systematic way in which to identify and summarise message content. The term ‘content analysis’ refers to the analysis of such things as books, brochures, written or typed documents, transcripts, news reports, visual media as well as the analysis of narratives such as diaries or journals. Although mostly associated with qualitative research approaches, statistical and other numerical data can also be analysed, making content analysis suitable for quantitative research as well. Sampling and coding are ubiquitous elements of content analysis.

The most obvious example of content analysis is the literature study that any researcher needs to do when preparing a research proposal as well as when conducting the actual research for a doctoral or master’s degree.

Especially (but not only) inexperienced students often think that volume is equal to quality, with the result that they include any content in their thesis or dissertations without even asking themselves if it is relevant to the research that they are doing. The information that you include in your thesis or dissertation must be relevant and it must add value to your thesis or dissertation.

We analyse the characteristics of language as communication regarding its content. This means examining words or phrases within a wide range of texts, including books, book chapters, essays, interviews and speeches as well as informal conversation and headlines. By examining the presence or repetition of certain words and phrases in these texts you are able to make inferences about the philosophical assumptions of a writer, a written piece, the audience for which a piece is written, and even the culture and time in which the text is embedded. Due to this wide array of applications, content analysis is used in literature and rhetoric, marketing psychology and cognitive science, etc.

The purpose of content analysis is to identify patterns, themes, biases and meanings. Classical content analysis will look at patterns in terms used, ideas expressed, associations among ideas, justifications, and explanations. It is a process of looking at data from different angles with a view to identifying key arguments, principles or facts in the text that will help us to understand and interpret the raw data. It is an inductive and iterative process where we look for similarities and differences in text that would corroborate or disprove theory or a hypothesis. A typical content analysis would be to evaluate the contents of a newly written academic book to see if it is on a suitable level and aligned with the learning outcomes of a curriculum.

Content analysis can also be used to analyse ethnographic data. Ethnographic data can be used to prove or disprove a hypothesis. However, in this case validity might be suspect, primarily because a hypothesis should be proven or rejected on account of valid evidence. Quantitative analysis is often regarded as more “scientific” and therefore more accurate than qualitative data. This, however, is a perception that only holds true if the quantitative data can be shown to be objective, accurate and authentic. Qualitative data that is sufficiently corroborated is often more valid and accurate than quantitative data based on inaccurate or manipulated statistics.

Content analysis would typically comprise of three stages: stating the research problem, collecting and retrieving the text and employing sampling methods, interpretation and analysis. Stating the problem will typically be done early in the thesis or dissertation. Collecting and retrieving text and employing sampling methods are typically the actual research process, which may include interviewing, literature study, etc.

It is a good idea to code your work as you write. Find one or more key words for every section and keep record of it. In this manner you will be able to find arguments that belong together more easily, and you will be able to avoid duplication of the same content at different places in your thesis or dissertation. Most dedicated computer software enables you to not only keep content with the same code together, but also to access and even print it. This is especially valuable for structuring the contents of your thesis or dissertation in a logical narrative format and to come to conclusions without contradicting yourself.

Content analysis sometimes incorporates a quantitative element. It is based on examining data for recurrent instances, i.e. patterns, of some kind. These instances are then systematically identified across the data set and grouped together. You should first decide on the unit of analysis: this could be the whole group, the group dynamics, the individual participants, or the participant’s utterances. The unit of analysis provides the basis for developing a coding system, and the codes are then applied systematically across a transcript. Once the data have been coded, a further issue is whether to quantify them via counting instances. Counting is an effective way in which to provide a summary or overview of the data set as a whole.

Interviewing is mostly used prior to doing content analysis, although literature study can also be used. Analysing data obtained through interviewing includes analysing data obtained from a focus group. This variation of content analysis usually begins by examining the text of similarly used words, themes, or answers to questions. Analysed data need to be arranged to fit the purpose of the research. This can, for example, be achieved by indexing data under certain topics or subjects or by using dedicated research software. In addition to individual ideas, the flow of ideas throughout the group should also be examined. It is, for example, important to determine which ideas enjoy the most support and agreement.

Paradigmatic approaches that fit well with content analysis include feminism, hermeneutics, interpretivism, modernism, post-colonialism and rationalism.

Summary

Comparative analysis:

Analyses the conditions that lead to an outcome.
Involves searching systematically for similarities and differences.
Mostly uses secondary data sources.
Is mostly used with qualitative research.

Theoretical abstracts can be used for comparative analysis.

Comparative analysis is used:

1. To increase the diversity, variety and extent of an analysis.

2. To analyse human activities.

3. To analyse whole societies and systems within societies.

Content analysis:

Can serve as the foundation for qualitative research.
Can be used with qualitative and quantitative research.
Extensively uses literature as data.
Can also be used to analyse ethnographic data.

The purpose of content analysis is to identify patterns, themes, biases and meanings.

It would typically comprise of three stages: stating the research problem, collecting data, and analysing data.

Coding can be used with good effect in content analysis.

Close

You probably already noticed that the differences between different data analysis methods are just a matter of emphasis.

They share many elements.

For example, both comparative analysis and content analysis use literature as sources of data.

Both fit in better with qualitative research than with quantitative research.

This means that you can use more than one data analysis method to achieve the purpose of your research.

Enjoy your studies.

Thank you.

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ARTICLE 88: Research Methods for Ph. D. and Master’s Degree Studies: Data Analysis Methods Part 1 of 7 Parts

28th Nov 2020 No Comments

Written by Dr. Hannes Nel

Isn’t life strange?

There are so many ways in which we can learn.

And the interrelatedness of events, phenomena and behaviour can be researched in so many ways.

And we can discover truths and learn lesson by linking data, paradigms, research methods, dada collection and analysis methods.

And by changing the combination of research concepts, we can discover new lessons, knowledge and truths.

Research often deals with the analysis of data to discriminate between right and wrong, true and false.

Furthermore, people and life form a system with a multitude of links and correlations.

Consequently, we can learn by conducting research on even just an individual.

I discuss the following two data analysis methods in this article:

Analytical induction.
Biographical analysis.

Analytical induction

Induction, in contrast to deduction, involves inferring general conclusions from particular instances. It is a way of gaining understanding of concepts and procedures by identifying and testing causal links between them. Analytical induction is, therefore, a procedure for analysing data which requires systematic analysis.

It aims to ensure that the analyst’s theoretical conclusions cover the entire range of the available data.

Analytical induction is a data analysis method that is often regarded as a research method. It uses inductive, as opposed to deductive reasoning. Qualitative data can be analysed without making use of statistical methods. The process to be explained and the factors that explain the phenomenon are progressively redefined in an iterative process to maintain a perfect relationship between them.

The procedure of analytical induction means that you, as the researcher, form an initial hypothesis or a series of hypotheses or a problem statement or question and then search for false evidence in the data at your disposal and formulate or modify your conclusions based on the available evidence. This is especially important if you work on a hypothesis, seeing that evidence can prove or refute a hypothesis.

Data are studied and analysed to generate or identify categories of phenomena; relationships between these categories are sought and working typologies and summaries are written based on the data that you examined. These are then refined by subsequent cases and through analysis. You should not only look for evidence that corroborates your premise but also for evidence that refutes it or calls for modification. Your original explanation or theory may be modified, accepted, enlarged or restricted, based on the conclusions to which the data leads you. Analytical induction will typically follow the following procedure:

A rough definition of the phenomenon to be explained is formulated.
A hypothetical explanation of the phenomenon is formulated.
A real-life case is studied in the light of the hypothesis, with the object of determining whether the hypothesis fits the facts in the case.
If the hypothesis does not fit the facts, either the hypothesis is reformulated or the phenomenon to be explained is redefined, so that the case is excluded.
Practical certainty may be attained after a small number of cases have been examined, but the discovery of negative evidence disproves the explanation and requires a reformulation.
The procedure of examining cases, redefining the phenomenon, and reformulating the hypothesis is continued until a universal relationship is established, each negative case calling for a redefinition or a reformulation.
Theories generated by logical deduction from a priori assumptions.

Paradigmatic approaches that can be used with analytical induction include all paradigms where real-life case studies are conducted, for example transformative research, romanticism, relativism, rationalism, post-structuralism, neoliberalism and many more.

Biographical analysis

Biographical analysis focuses on an individual. It would mostly focus on a certain period in a person’s life when she or he did something or was somebody of note. Biographical analysis can include research on individual biographies, autobiographies, life histories and the history of somebody told by those who know it. Data for a biographical analysis will mostly be archived documents or at least documents that belong in an archive. Interviews can also be used if the person is still alive or by interviewing people who knew the individual well when still alive.

Although biographical analysis mostly deals with prominent individuals, it can also deal with humble people, people with tragic life experiences, people from whose life experiences lessons can be learned, etc. Regardless of whether the individual is or was a prominent person or not, you as the researcher will need to collect extensive information on the individual, develop a clear understanding of the historical and contextual background, and have the ability to write in a good narrative format.

You can approach an autobiographical analysis as a classical biography or as an interpretive biography. A classical biography is one in which you, as the researcher, would be concerned about the validity and criticism of primary sources so that you will develop a factual base for explanations. An interpretive biography is a study in which your presence and your point of view are acknowledged in the narrative. Interpretive biographies recognise that in a sense, the writer ‘creates’ the person in the narrative.

Summary

Analytical induction:

Is a procedure for analysing data.
Requires systematic analysis.
Identifies and tests causal links between phenomena.
Ensures complete coverage of data through theoretical conclusions.
Is regarded as a research method by some.
Progressively refines the explanation of phenomena.
Searches for false information through hypothesis testing.
Searches for relationships between phenomena.
Modifies wrong conclusions.
Identifies categories of phenomena.
Enables the researcher to write and summarise working typologies.

Biographical analysis:

Focuses on the individual.
Can include research on individual biographies, autobiographies and life histories.
Mostly fall back on archival documents.
Can deal with anybody’s experiences from which others can gain value and learn lessons.
Can be a classical or interpretive biography.

Close

In this video, we saw how we can gain knowledge by testing the validity, authenticity and accuracy of data.

We also saw that we can learn from the experiences of others.

There are many other ways in which we can discover knowledge by analysing existing data.

We will discuss them in the six articles following on this one.

Enjoy your studies.

Thank you.

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ARTICLE 86: Research Method for Ph. D. and Master’s Degree Studies: Preparing for Data Collection

24th Nov 2020 No Comments

Written by Dr. Hannes Nel

How long do you think will it take you to complete a thesis or dissertation?

You probably know the old saying that work expands to fill the time available for its completion.

That is also true for academic research.

I guess the average student will need one or two years for a thesis towards a master’s degree and two to ten years for a dissertation towards a Ph. D.

This is not a lot of time.

Believe me, you will need every second that you can spare to complete the work in the available time.

And you will need to plan your research project as accurately as you possibly can.

I discuss how to plan and organise data collection for research in this article.

Organising data collection. Once you have decided on the research approach and data collection instruments you will use you should be able to draw up a draft schedule for your research. This will relate the time you have available in which to carry out the research – a given number of hours, days, weeks or perhaps years – to your other responsibilities and commitments. You can then slot in the various research activities you will need to engage in at times when you expect to be both free and, in the mood, to work on your research.

Many universities require of students to report on their progress at specific stages. This is not in line with the principles of adult learning, although it is often necessary. Even if such due dates are not set by a study leader, it is still a good idea to draft a schedule for your research work. You know that you will probably have only limited time in which to do the work, so sketch out what you will be doing, month by month or week by week, in order to achieve your objectives. Remember to leave yourself some flexibility and some ‘spare time’, for when things do not go exactly as planned. This means that you need to do some contingency planning as well.

Just because you have drawn up a schedule, however, does not mean that you will go to jail if you do not keep strictly to it. It is difficult, even with experience, to precisely estimate the time that different research activities will take. Some will take longer than expected, whereas others may need less time. Some will be abandoned, whereas other unanticipated activities will demand attention. It is a good idea to allow for some spare time and flexibility in your scheduling. You should also revisit your schedule from time to time, and make revisions, to allow for such changes and to keep yourself on track.

One thing you must avoid is to put off work until the last minute. If you drag your feet you will not be able to submit on the due date. Rather try to work ahead of your schedule so that you will have some spare time, should you need it because of unforeseen eventualities.

There are several ways of scheduling your research time. Project management software offer sophisticated ways in which to illustrate your research project diagrammatically or graphically.

Such charts suggest a simplified, rational view of research. They are useful in conveying the overlap of concurrences between the tasks to be carried out and can serve as a guide to monitor your progress. In practice there will be numerous minor changes to your plans as set out, and perhaps some major ones as well.

Piloting instruments for the collection of data. It is advisable to pilot your data collection instruments before you use them on your actual target group. In this manner you can save lots of time and money, because it would be a catastrophe if, for example, you were to send out 10 000 questionnaires of which you receive 2 000 back only to find that you cannot use any because of some simple technical error.

Rather carry out a couple of interviews with friends or colleagues in advance or have them fill out some questionnaires or observe some organisational activities – or whatever else you plan on using to gather data with. You will learn a great deal from the activity, for example the amount of time that collecting data can take. You will also know if your instruments work or not. You need to pilot your instruments early enough so that you will still have time to change them or even your data collecting strategy if necessary.

Do not underestimate the value of pilot research. Things never work out quite the way you expected them to, even if you have done them many times before, and they have a nasty habit of turning out differently from how you expected them to. If you do not pilot your data collection instruments and procedure first, you will probably find that your initial period of data collection turns into a pilot study in any case.

And yes, the surprise that you get will be a pleasant one if you planned and conducted your data collection well.

Summary

You can use the following steps to plan and organise your data collection:

Decide which research approach and method or methods you will use.
Choose the data collection methods and instruments that you will use.
Decide how much time you will need to conduct your research I you did not decide already.
Fit your research activities into the time that you have available for research.
Draft a schedule for your research work.
Do contingency planning if you did not do so already.
Allow for some spare time in your schedule.
Allow for time to meet with your study leader.
Pilot the data collection instruments that you will use.

Close

Do not put off any research work until the last minute.

Pilot the data collection instruments early enough so that you will have time to correct and improve them.

Keep your study leader informed about your progress.

Enjoy your studies.

News

ARTICLE 85: Research Methods for Ph. D. and Master’s Degree Studies: Data Collection Methods: Written Documents

22nd Nov 2020 No Comments

Written by Dr. Hannes Nel

I guess many of us were conditioned from the day we started school to regard what is written on paper or what we can see on our computer monitors or cell phones as knowledge.

And as we grew older, we were taught to write things.

Probably most teachers and, later, lecturers, teach pupils and students that there are other sources of data apart from written documents.

But somehow, when we need to write a report of any kind, we fall back on written documents as our main, sometimes only, sources of data.

It is a good starting point.

Just keep in mind that what is written on paper or electronically is already old.

And the world is dynamic.

And we must be able to adapt to changes in the environment rapidly.

And especially on doctoral level, we need to develop new knowledge.

And existing knowledge is sometimes an obstacle in the way of progress.

I discuss the use of written documents as a data source in this article.

Almost all research projects involve, to a greater or lesser extent, the use and analysis of documents. You are expected to read, understand and critically analyse the writing of others, whether fellow researchers, practitioners or policymakers. For some research projects the focus of data collection is wholly or almost entirely, on documents of various kinds.

Documents are records of past events that are written or printed; they may be anecdotal notes, letters, diaries, reports and, of course, books. Official documents include internal papers, communications to various public, student and personal files, programme descriptions, and institutional statistical data.

In interactive data collection techniques, you can find these documents at the site or a participant may offer to share these personal records with you. Documents are the most important data source in concept analysis and historical studies. Documents are usually catalogued and preserved in archives, manuscript collection repositories, or libraries. Documents might, for example:

Be library-based, aimed at producing a critical synopsis of an existing area of research writing.
Be computer-based, consisting largely of the analysis of previously collected data sets.
Be work-based, drawing on material produced within an organisation.
Have a policy focus, examining material relevant to a particular set of policy decisions.
Have a historical orientation, making use of available archival and other surviving documentary evidence.

Using documents can be a relatively unobtrusive form of research, one which does not necessarily require you to approach respondents directly. Reading documents is usually supplemented by other data collection methods. You will probably make considerable use of secondary data, i.e. data which has already been collected, and possibly also analysed, by somebody else. Technically speaking most documents are secondary data, the most common forms of which are official statistics collected by governments and government agencies.

One needs to be cautious when analysing secondary data. The questions you need to ask of any existing document are:

What were the conditions of its production? For example, why, and when, was the document written and for whom?
If you are using statistical data sets, have the variables changed over time?
Have the indicators of statistical data sets that you used to measure variables changed? For example, the measurement of unemployment has undergone many changes in the past two decades, and even today different research agencies use different definitions of unemployment as well as different statistical models, so that they produce different figures for what should be the same thing. This makes comparison of figures difficult and sometimes unrealistic.

You will invariably make use of written documents, including books and your own notes taken during interviews and fieldwork (observation), as sources of information. You will already have used such documents when you prepared your study proposal. Another important data collection activity where you will extensively use written documents will be when you do your literature review.

The notes taken during interviews need to be a true and accurate reflection of what has been said by the interviewees. You need to distinguish between capturing the exact words and paraphrasing. This is important for showing proof that you did not commit plagiarism and that the way you used the data is accurate, valid and consistent.

Notes that you take can be rather voluminous. However, you should still pay attention to taking accurate notes. You should also note the names of people who you interviewed or spoke to, who said what during focus group meetings and the time, dates and places where the interviews or discussions took place.

Treat the opportunity to review any material as if it were your only opportunity to access and read the documents. By doing so, you will reduce the frustration created by having to return to the material later. You will also minimise inconveniencing any people who may have had to retrieve the material for you.

People whom you interviewed will not always be available or willing to repeat the interview, should you lose your notes. It is always a good idea to make duplicates of written documents. This, of course, is easier if you could just make a backup of an electronic version of the documents. Also type a copy of a voice recording as soon as you have an opportunity to do so. Check that the recorder is working before you do an interview or focus group.

Summary

Almost all research projects use written documents as a source of data.

A document can be anything that is written or printed.

Documents can be found in libraries, personal collections, in bookshops, archives and many more.

The contents of documents are often supplemented by other sources of data.

Most documents are secondary data.

You must corroborate written data.

Be careful of not committing plagiarism when using documents as a source of data.

Make sure that your notes and other documents that you prepare are accurate and relevant to your research.

It is advisable to store your notes electronically or to make printed or written duplicates.

Close

The requirements for the collection and use of documents as sources of data are in many ways the same as for most data collection methods.

All data should be corroborated, regardless of how it was collected.
All data that you collect, and use must be relevant to your research.
You must acknowledge the origin of data that you use in your thesis or dissertation.
You must be able to provide evidence of the data that you refer to in your thesis or dissertation, should your study leader, an external evaluator or any other stakeholder question it.

Enjoy your studies.

Thank you.

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ARTICLE 84: Research Methods for Ph. D. and Master’s Degree Studies: Data Collection Methods: Online Data Sources Part 2 of 2 Parts

20th Nov 2020 No Comments

Written by Dr. Hannes Nel

Did you notice how many experts of all shapes and sizes post videos on the internet in which they predict the end of the world?

Some of them even give a date and time for the ultimate catastrophe.

And when it does not happen, they simply shift the date.

Do you believe them?

And if you do, what criteria should they meet for you to regard them as trustworthy prophets of doom?

I discuss the requirements for accuracy and authenticity of data in this video.

The internet can be a valuable source of information. However, people doing research need to be careful when using information obtained from internet sources. Any individual can upload information on the internet and all web site hosts are not equally responsible when it comes to accepting contributions. All information that you use in your research should be corroborated. This is an important consideration because electronic documents are not always quality assured, and documents are sometimes distributed electronically because publishers are not interested in them.

The accuracy an authenticity of information can be evaluated by checking the following:

Checking the author.
Checking the purpose.
Checking for objectivity.
Checking for accuracy.
Checking for reliability and credibility.
Checking for coverage.
Checking for currency.
Checking links.

Checking the author. You can check personal homepages on the World Wide Web, campus directory entries and information retrieved through search engines to find relevant information about an author. You can also check print sources in the library reference area and other biographical sources, for information such as the following:

Is the name of the author/creator on the page?
Is the page signed?
Are his/her relevant profile and credentials listed, including occupation, years of experience, position or education? Stated differently, is the author suitably qualified to write on the given topic?
Is there contact information, such as an email or web site address on the page?
If there is a link to a web site address, is it for an individual or for an organisation?
What is the relationship of the author with the organisation, if the address is that of an organisation, for example a university or consulting company?

Checking the purpose. It is often easier to judge the contents of a source if you know for what purpose the article was written. Also check for whom the article is intended.

Checking for objectivity. Objectivity is a prerequisite of any research. Even so, political and social issues are strong temptations to misuse and misinterpret information to fit a particular agenda. The following questions can be used to check if your interpretation of data is objective or not:

Is there any indication if the information is claimed to be factual, just the opinion of an individual, or the propaganda of a body with ulterior motives, for example a political body, radical or religious group?
Judging from the formulation and tone of the document, does the author’s point of view appear to be objective and impartial or not?
Is the language and tone in which the document is written free of or loaded with emotional words and bias?
Is the author affiliated with an organisation, the values and objectives of which might render the information biased and subjective?
Is the document free of or cluttered with advertisements or sponsored links?

Checking for accuracy. Accuracy can mean different things to different people, depending on which paradigmatic approach you follow. However, data and the interpretation of data need to be valid, authentic, free of deliberate, accidental or coincidental misrepresentations and logical, to be of value for research purposes. The following questions can be used to check the accuracy of data and your research findings:

Are the sources of factual information clearly and accurately acknowledged so that the information can be verified?
Is it clear who has the ultimate responsibility for the accuracy of the content of the material and is the profile of this individual or group of experts known?
Is the information corroborated by other sources or can you verify the information from your own knowledge?
Has the information been reviewed or referred by an individual or group of experts with the necessary knowledge to conduct professional evaluation?
Has the document been written on an acceptable academic level and is the information free of grammatical, spelling, and typographical errors?

Checking for reliability and credibility. Reliability and credibility go hand in hand with accuracy. Reliable information is information that is consistently the same over time and across at least the target group for the research, although it should ideally be the same in as wide a context as possible. Credibility is dependent on the authenticity, accuracy and trustworthiness of the data and research findings. You, as the researcher, will be responsible for credibility, which means that you will need to conduct the research in an accountable, honest and ethical manner. Reliability and credibility can be checked by asking and answering the following questions:

Why should anyone believe information from this source?
Judging from the content and layout, does the information appear to be valid and well-researched, or is it written in an unstructured manner and inaccurately supported or not supported at all by evidence of authenticity?
Has the document been published by a publisher with a good reputation for only publishing quality content that has been checked for accuracy, authenticity and objectivity?
Are quotations and other strong statements or claims backed by sources that you could check through other means, and are the sources acknowledged where the statements or claims are made?
Which university, college, research experts or scientists support or endorse the information?
Do the university, college, research experts or scientists who support or endorse the information have a good reputation as being objective and an authority in the field of the document?
Is the electronic material also available in hard (book or magazine) format?

Checking for coverage. Coverage refers to the notion of saturation. Your research findings should not be biased or rendered inaccurate because you did not consult enough, or the wrong sources of information. Although the extent of research is always limited by factors such as capacity, available time, funds, and the co-operation of members of the target group, you should at least achieve the purpose of your research. Coverage can be checked by asking and answering the following questions:

Is the information relevant to the topic of your research?
Does the document have information that is not available elsewhere?
How in-depth is the material?

Checking for currency. The most important factor determining currency is, of course, recency. The more recent the information that you collected is, the more accurate, valid and relevant will your research analysis and findings be. Currency can be checked by asking and answering the following questions:

Is the document reviewed regularly by someone who has the relevant knowledge and skills?
Does the document or posting show when it was originally written, when and how often it was reviewed and when it was last reviewed?

Checking links. Each web site should be checked independently because the quality of web pages linked to the original web page may vary. This can be done by asking and answering the following questions:

Are the links related to the topic of the document and are the web sites that are linked articulated to the purpose of the site and the content of the document?
Are the links still current, or have some or all of them been deactivated or simply abandoned?
What kinds of other sources are linked and are they in any way related to the contents and purpose of the document in which you are interested?
Are the links maintained, evaluated and reviewed and do they show growth in terms of traffic volume, quality of content and the user-friendliness and professional and attractive layout of the sites?

Summary

Anybody can post data on the internet. Therefore, you need to be careful when using such data in your research.

The accuracy and authenticity of information can be evaluated by checking the following:

The author. The author should be a known and reputable authority in the field of study. Also, the author should be acknowledged in the data source that you consult.
The purpose of the data source. The data source should be relevant to your research topic.
Objectivity. Be wary of articles, videos and other data source on the internet that were posted with ulterior, possibly damaging motives in mind.
Accuracy. Data must be valid, authentic, free of misinterpretation and logical.
Reliability and credibility. Data should be consistently the same over time and context.
Coverage. Data should answer at least part of your research question and add value to your thesis or dissertation. On doctoral level the data should lead to new and improved knowledge.
Currency. Data must still be relevant to the field of your research.
Links. Quality data will mostly be shared and supported by more than one authority in the field of study. The more academic web pages deal with the topic and agree with the arguments, the more likely it is to be valid, authentic, accurate and recent.

Close

You will ultimately be responsible for the quality of data that you collect and use in your thesis or dissertation.

You will also be accountable for the way you use the data.

It serves no purpose checking the accuracy and authenticity of the data that you collect if you bend the meaning of the original author to serve your purpose.

Or if you use accurate data to achieve ulterior, damaging motives.

As with all data that you collect and use, ethics is a critically important requirement for your research.

Enjoy your studies.

Thank you.

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ARTICLE 82: Research Methods for Ph. D. and Master’s Degree Studies: Data Collection Methods: Observation Part 2 of 2 Parts: Participant Observation versus Non-participant Observation

15th Nov 2020 No Comments

Written by Dr. Hannes Nel

Does participant observation mean that a player is also made the referee?

Should you, as a researcher, intervene in the problem that you are studying?

Is it ethically justifiable to observe and collect information about people without them knowing what you are doing?

Can you do research on yourself?

I discuss possible answers to these questions in this article.

Participant observation versus non-participant observation. Participant observation is also direct observation. It is a mode of field-based research whereby researchers locate themselves in the real-world field setting being studied, participating and observing in the setting while also collecting data and taking notes about the field setting, its participants, and its events.

As a participant observer you will participate in the event or action about which data is being collected. An example of this would be if you participate in an advocacy campaign while taking photos or perhaps just notes, on the behaviour of members of a crowd marching on a government office building.

Making observations as part of qualitative research will probably not involve either a formal observational instrument or a large sample of observations made under highly comparable conditions. Instead, your observations will likely be part of a participant-observer role or will be made more by chance during your interviews or other field activities. Most importantly, in most qualitative research, you are unlikely to be making multiple and repetitive observations at a single, fixed location or at pre-specified time intervals.

In acting as a participant-observer, you are likely to locate yourself in some field setting that is fluid in time and space. Such fluidity will require you to make explicit decisions about your observational choices. For instance, the fluidity means that you cannot be at all places at the same time. You also cannot watch everything that is going on, especially if the event that you are observing is complex or takes place at different places at the same time. You will, therefore, need to decide where to position yourself. It might also be necessary to use the assistance of other people.

You should plan your observation procedure well to ensure that you collect the data that you need to satisfy your research question. Record keeping is important and should reflect what you observed and when. You will need to write down who participated in the process that you observed, what you saw, how it is relevant to your research topic and the conclusions that you can make from your observations.

Objectivity, representativeness, authenticity and accuracy can be improved by repeating observations at different times or different, though similar locations.

It would be unrealistic to list all possible observations that can be done for research purposes. Some examples include observing the characteristics of individual people (mannerisms, clothes, behaviour, etc.); interactions between and among people; processes; physical surroundings, etc.

A host of different paradigmatic approaches can be used with participant observation, including, behaviourism, constructivism, ethnomethodology, functionalism, phenomenology, pragmatism, radicalism, romanticism, scientism, and symbolic interactionism.

Participant observation is an interactive technique of “participating” to some degree in naturally occurring situations over an extended time and writing extensive field notes to describe what occurs. You should not collect data to answer a specific hypothesis; rather the explanations are inductively derived from the field notes. Since the context of the observations is important, you should be careful to document your role in the situation and what effect that may have on the findings.

Most field workers remain a respectful distance from the informants – cultivating empathy but not sympathy, rapport but not friendship. Collaborative and participatory research introduces the notion of active participation by you and sharing the research role with the participants. In each variation of participant observation, the research role is established at the beginning of the study and then monitored while records are kept.

To intervene or not is an important question when doing participant observation. Your intervention in an event or action, for example asking members of your target group questions while they are doing something, might change their behaviour. Perhaps this is what you want – you need to observe how people react to certain stimuli, which you will produce or arrange. However, mostly your observations will be much more natural and valid if you don’t intervene with the target group and what they do.

As a non-participant observer, you will observe “from the outside”. In this instance you will not participate in the event. If we use the example of an advocacy campaign – you might take video footage from the top of a building of a marching crowd becoming involved in a violent riot and clashes with the police. You should recognise this as an etic approach.

Overt observation versus covert observation. Overt observation would be if you observe an event, phenomenon openly and, if necessary, with the permission of those who have an interest in the event or phenomenon. You might, for example, need the permission of the police to take footage of a march in support of an advocacy campaign.

Covert observation would be if you collect images without those who are being observed, or those who should give permission, knowing that the data is being collected. This often happens when the events or actions will be different, probably artificial, if people know that they are being observed, especially if evidence, such as photos or video footage, is being collected.

Obstacles in the way of observation. Observation can be a valuable tool with which to collect and analyse data, but it is by no means perfect.

One of the most important considerations to keep in mind when doing observations is ethics. Especially covert observation and intervening with the activities of your target group can be contentious. Collecting evidence without the consent of the target group might violate the requirement of informed consent, invade the privacy and private space of participants, and insult people by treating them as research objects.

However, the validity, authenticity and accuracy of research sometimes depend on conducting covert observation. Covert observation might, for example, be necessary for groups who would otherwise not agree to being observed even though the research is in their interest. Another example is where people will not act naturally, thereby damaging the validity of the research, if they know that they are being observed. A third scenario justifying covert observation is where the knowledge of being observed might move people to act in an unsafe manner, for example a peaceful march turning violent to provoke the police or people doing dangerous deeds because they know that video cameras are on them.

People who act illegally and under the protection of “darkness” such as burglars, child abusers, murderers, etc. can and should usually not be asked for their permission to be observed, although this might lead to rather serious arguments about denying people their constitutional rights. The ethical dilemmas are numerous. At issue is the dilemma that arises between protecting the rights of an individual versus protecting the rights of the community at large.

A second obstacle in the way of objective and accurate observation is intervention. Should you intervene if you observe a child being abused, a person being murdered or raped, a crime being committed when your intervention will deny you a once in a lifetime opportunity to obtain valuable data for your research?

These are issues that cannot be solved by means of a code of conduct. Legislation, religion and your personal value system might serve as a guideline to help you decide. However, you will probably need to consider a host of variables to decide what you should do when confronted with ethical considerations.

A third obstacle in the way of collecting valid and reliable information through observation is the issue of bias. All human beings are subjective and largely, if not entirely, guided by their own perceptions. The following are examples of factors that can lead you to the wrong interpretations and conclusions:

Our focus decides what we see and how we interpret what we see. We can easily be distracted.
People do not behave the same when they know that they are being watched as when they think they are alone or can hide in a crowd or in the dark.
Your state of mind, state of health and whether you are tired or not influence how you observe and think.
Body language can lead us astray.
Our personal preferences and value system largely determine what we see and how we interpret what we see.
The longer we take to record our observations, the more likely it is that we will have forgotten details, facts and the order of events.
We are subjectively influenced by our memory – what we observed previously. We tend to believe that events will repeat themselves and people will always act and respond the same under the same or similar circumstances.
We are influenced by what we expect or wish to happen.

Self-observation versus observation of others. It is possible to conduct research on the self. An example of self-observation is where a person recorded video footage and wrote down his feelings and reactions while taking drugs. Mostly, however, you would observe the target for your research.

Summary

Participant observation is also direct observation and fieldwork.

It is an interactive technique.

Therefore, you will mostly follow and emic approach.

An etic approach is also possible.

You need to decide what your role towards the target group for your research will be before you start collecting data.

To intervene with the target group or not is an important decision to make when planning observation.

Participant observation can often be semi-structured or even unstructured in qualitative research.

Even so, it is advisable to plan your observation procedure well.

You can use the assistance of other people when using participant observation to collect data.

You need to keep record of what you observed and when.

Corroboration of data can be achieved by repeating observations at different times but at similar locations.

Participant observation fits in well with the interpretivist paradigms, although it can sometimes also be used in conjunction with technicist and critical paradigms.

Overt observation would be if you observe an event or phenomenon openly.

Covert observation would be if you collect images or other data without the knowledge or permission of the target for your research.

Covert observation is sometimes necessary but needs to be done with circumspection.

Ethics is an important consideration when using observation to collect data.

A second important consideration is if you should intervene in an event or phenomenon that is relevant to your research.

A third important consideration is bias.

This means that you need to persistently guard against subjectivity in your data collection and interpretation.

It is possible and can be valuable to conduct research on yourself.

Close

I hope you noticed that it is possible to act as player and referee when collecting data through observation.

There are three preconditions for this.

Firstly, you need to act ethically.

Secondly, you should not intervene in the activities of the target group for your research, unless ethical considerations make intervention necessary.

And thirdly, you need to persistently act objectively when collecting and interpreting data.

Enjoy your studies.

Thank you.

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ARTICLE 81: Research Methods for Ph. D. and Master’s Degree Studies: Data Collection Methods: Observation: Part 1 of 2 Parts

13th Nov 2020 No Comments

Written by Dr. Hannes Nel

I could live for ever just seeing, hearing, tasting, touching and smelling things.

Astronomers must have a wonderful time trying to figure out the universe.

As do microbiologists trying to make sense of the micro world.

They, and all the natural and social scientists between these two extremes can use observation to collect data for research.

I discuss direct, indirect, structured, semi-structured and unstructured observation in this article.

In a way, all data collection techniques involve observation of some kind. Observational research methods refer to a specific method of collecting information that is different from interviews or questionnaires. As a technique for collecting information, the observational method relies on seeing and hearing things and recording those observations, rather than relying on a subject’s self-report responses to questions or statements. You can also use your other senses to observe things.

The role of the observer is to remain detached from the group or process, and thus act as an observer only. You may, for example, wish to study the way students express their dissatisfaction with study-related issues by observing what they do and how they behave in such situations. You, as the observer, must not participate in the activities but rather just observe and record the information (an etic approach). It is, however, also possible to observe from the inside, i.e. as a member of the target group being observed (an emic approach).

Your role as an observer depends on the degree of inference or judgement that is required. At an extreme, you may make high inference observations, which require you to make judgements or inferences based on the observed behaviour.

What is recorded with high inference observation is your judgement as the observer. For example, a high inference observation of a teacher would be a rating made by the principal on factors such as classroom management, facilitation skills, enthusiasm, etc. You need to summarise the main points made or main developments at the event that you are observing. The principal would observe the class and make a rating of excellent, good, fair, or poor on each of the criteria measured.

Low inference observation, on the other hand, requires the observer to record specific behaviour without making judgements in a more global sense. Thus, the principal might record the number of rebukes or cues used by the teacher as information that is used subsequently to judge classroom management. Low inference observation usually is more reliable, but the approach that you follow will largely depend on the purpose of the research. Whatever the purpose of the research, it is important to report all observed outcomes as accurately and impartially as possible. It will mostly be necessary to present critical comment on strengths and weaknesses of the event, supported with reasons.

Observation always takes place in a specific context, with the result that different observations made at different locations and times will seldom deliver the same results. Such scenarios will mostly be one of the following five possibilities:

Direct observation versus indirect observation.
Structured, semi-structured and unstructured observation.
Participant observation versus non-participant observation.
Overt observation versus covert observation.
Self-observation versus observation of others.

I will discuss the first two (direct observation versus indirect observation and structured, semi-structured and unstructured observation) in this article. The remaining three scenarios (participant observation versus non-participant observation; overt observation versus covert observation and self-observation versus observation of others) in the second part of the articles on observation.

Direct observation versus indirect observation.Direct observation is observation that takes place during fieldwork. As such it offers you the opportunity to gather ‘live’ data from naturally occurring situations. The use of direct observation has the potential to yield more valid and authentic data than would be the case when making use of any ‘indirect’ source of information.

Field observation is fundamental to most qualitative research – direct, eyewitness accounts of everyday social action and settings taking the form of field notes. Field observation is especially favoured by research based on ethnomethodology. Qualitative field observations are detailed descriptions of events, people, actions, and objects in settings.

Field observation is used in interactive data collection, such as participant observation and in-depth interviewing. In the former, you will rely on careful observation as you will initially explore several areas of interest at a site, selecting those to study in detail, and searching for patterns of behaviour and relationships. In the latter, you will note the nonverbal body language and facial expressions of the interviewee to help interpret the verbal data.

Indirect observation would be observation that takes place in unnatural, artificial settings. An unnatural setting would, for example, be observations in a laboratory, observation of video footage, photos, etc.

Direct observation coupled with indirect observation, for example video and audio recordings that you took, provide ‘permanent’ evidence of an event, facts, action or phenomenon. Some people would rather be observed than to complete a questionnaire or answer questions during an interview. Furthermore, the duration of observations can be measured quite accurately when it is necessary, for example when it is important to know how long an individual spoke, a crowd rioted, etc.

Video recordings of observations can also show body language, facial expressions, tone of voice, extreme (or not) reaction to a question, attack, insult, etc. You can also test your interpretation of your observations by asking others to air their views or perceptions of what you video recorded. Video recordings can be replayed as many times as you wish.

Video recordings are not without challenges. Lack of control when observing and recording a natural setting may limit the value of your observations. What happens ‘outside’ the picture can often shed a completely different meaning to the images than what you see. Measuring lengths, heights, distance and width can be difficult if you do not have known images in the footage.

Structured, semi-structured and unstructured observation. A highly structured and systematic observation is based on proper and detailed planning. It can also be pre-ordinate, meaning that you will decide in advance what kind of pictures you will be looking for. In this instance you will already have formulated your hypothesis, problem statement or problem question so that you will know what kind of data you need. Collecting information in image format systematically means that you should work according to your plan, which might include venues, time, type of images to collect, etc. Structured observation is often directed at collecting qualitative data although the collection of quantitative data is also possible.

A semi-structured observation will be based on some planning, possibly even an agenda or at least a list of the images that you need. Your modus operandi, i.e. the way in which you will seek for and collect images, might well be haphazard, hoping that you will have some luck in finding what you are looking for. In this case you might have a hypothesis, problem statement or problem question although collecting images might trigger an issue to conduct research on.

An unstructured observation would be where you do not quite know what kind of images you are looking for. In this instance you will probably work in an unsystematic manner, relying on coming across useful images by chance. You might, for example, happen to have your video camera with you when something happens that you can use in your research. In this case you might not even have decided to embark on research yet. The image or images that you come across might trigger in your mind the need for research. Therefore, you will only now formulate a hypothesis, problem statement or problem question.

Summary

All data collection techniques involve some observation.

Observation relies on what you become aware of through the senses.

As an observer you will mostly remain detached from the target for your research.

It is, however, also possible to observe an event while participating in the activity.

You can act as an observer to make high or low inference observations.

In high inference observation you will need to make judgements or inferences based on your observations.

In low inference observation you will record your observations of specific behaviour without judgement.

You must always report all observations relevant to your research as accurately and impartially as possible.

Observation always takes place in a specific context, or scenario.

Scenarios for observation can be:

1. Direct observation versus indirect observation.

2. Structured, semi-structured and unstructured observation.

3. Participant observation versus non-participant observation.

4. Overt observation versus covert observation.

5. Self-observation versus observation of others.

Direct observation is observation that takes place during fieldwork.

Indirect observation takes place in unnatural, artificial settings.

Direct observation coupled with indirect observation provide ‘permanent’ evidence of an event, facts, action or phenomenon.

Structured observation is deliberately decided on and planned.

Some planning is needed for semi-structured observation.

You might, however, identify and select images haphazardly as and when you come across them.

An unstructured observation is where you do not plan the observations.

You will observe events and phenomena that you come across by chance.

Close

I will discuss participant observation versus non-participant observation; overt observation versus covert observation and self-observation versus observation of others in the second part of my articles on observation.

Enjoy your studies.

Thank you.

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ARTICLE 80: Research Methods for Ph. D. and Master’s Degree Studies: Data Collection Methods: Interviewing Part 4 of 4 Parts: Conducting Interviews and Group Discussions

10th Nov 2020 No Comments

Written by Dr. Hannes Nel

This article applies to one-to-one interviews as well as focus groups, which are just another variation of the interview.

I discuss several practical hints on how to conduct an interview.

Most of the hints deal with simple, perhaps even obvious issues.

However, your interview can easily fail if you don’t pay attention to the minor details.

Appearance is important when doing an interview. It is best for you, as the interviewer, to dress according to existing norms or in a fashion similar to the respondents, and not in a way that may lead the respondent to think that you represent a particular point of view, value system or institution. You need to be friendly, relaxed, and pleasant. Show an interest in the welfare of the respondent. Spend a few minutes with small talk to establish a proper relationship. To provide honest answers to questions, the respondent should feel comfortable in your presence. Appropriate appearance and demeanour provide a basis for establishing a comfortable relationship and rapport with the respondent.

Of course, you and the respondent should introduce yourselves if it is the first time that you are meeting. Before asking specific questions, you should briefly explain the purpose and scope of the interview. You should also explain to the respondent what you plan to use the information for. In practice you would already explain the purpose of the interview to the respondent when you approach him or her to ask for an interview. You should also give the respondent an opportunity to ask questions and to raise any concerns that she or he might have. The respondent should be allowed to question the purpose, scope and uses of the interview or discussion.

It is necessary to prepare an interview schedule as well as your interview questions, and then to address the questions in the words indicated on the interview schedule. Do your best not to rephrase questions, because this can spoil the consistency of your data collection process – it might not be possible to realistically compare information obtained with differently phrased questions posed to different respondents. Even so, you need to be ready to provide alternative explanations of questions if the respondent does not understand and asks for an explanation.

Conduct the interview in a professional and courteous manner and show sensitivity to issues of race, class and gender. Read questions without error or stumbling, in a natural, unforced manner. To accomplish this, you need to prepare thoroughly in advance and to practise asking the questions aloud so that you will be familiar with the questions.

It is important to take notes as the respondent answers your questions. This can be done by making an electronic voice recording of the interview, even though some people feel uncomfortable “talking to a machine”. Written notes can also be effective, although it can break your concentration and it is difficult to write everything at the speed that some people talk. Recording the answers electronically is generally most useful with open-ended questions, and such questions should be asked using clear language. Open-ended main questions can be supplemented with secondary questions which probe the respondent’s responses.

Probing for further clarification of an answer is a skill that, if misused, can lead to incomplete or inaccurate responses. You should allow sufficient time for the respondent to answer your questions without interrupting or cutting responses short. Probes should be neutral so as not to affect the nature of the response. You can write probes next to your main questions while doing the interview or in advance, so that you will have enough time to plan the probes well.

It is important to strictly manage the time spent on the interview. You might invoke negative responses to your questions if you make an appointment for thirty minutes and then keep on asking questions after an hour. On the other hand, spending too little time and rushing through the interview might lead to you not obtaining the data that you are looking for, so you will waste time rather than to save time. It might be necessary to remind the respondent of the purpose and scope of the interview from time to time just to make sure that she or he does not digress too much, thereby wasting time on irrelevant topics.

An interview should be prepared and conducted in such a manner that the flow of valid and reliable information is maximised while distortions of what the interviewee knows are kept to the minimum. The challenge in interviewing lies in excavating information as efficiently as possible, without contaminating it. To achieve this, you should formulate reliable questions and provide an atmosphere conducive to open communication. The following are some of the most popular interviewing techniques:

Interviews may take place face to face or at a distance, e.g. over the telephone or by email.
Interviews may take place at the interviewee’s or interviewer’s home or place of work, in the street or on some other ‘neutral’ ground.
At one extreme, the interview may be tightly structured, with a set of questions requiring specific answers or it may be open-ended, taking the form of a discussion. In the latter case, the purpose of the interviewer may be simply to facilitate the subject’s talking at length. Semi-structured interviews lie between these two positions.
Different forms of questioning may be practiced during the interview. In addition to survey questioning, you can also have classroom, courtroom and clinical questioning, as well as personal interviews, criminal interrogation and journalistic interviewing.
Prompts, such as photographs, can be useful for stimulating discussion.
Interviews may involve just two individuals – you, as the researcher, and the interviewee, or they may be group events (often referred to as focus groups), involving more than one subject and/or more than one interviewer.
The interviewee may, or may not, be given advance warning of the topics or subjects to gather any necessary information.
The interview may be recorded in a variety of ways. It may be electronically copied, or the interviewer may take notes, or one person may take notes while someone else asks the questions.
Interviews may be followed up in a variety of ways. A transcript could be sent to the interviewee for comment. Further questions might subsequently be sent to the interviewee in writing. A whole series of interviews could be held over a period, building upon each other, or exploring changing views and experiences.

After asking and having all your questions answered, you should thank the respondent and allow time for him or her to make comments or suggestions regarding the topic of the questions or the interview in general. It is important to end the interview on a positive note. Sum the interview up for the participant to confirm or amend conclusions.

Finally, you need to go through the interview recordings and/or notes as soon as possible, while they are still fresh in your memory. You need to process and analyse the responses so that you will be able to report the outcomes of the interview accurately to the relevant person.

Summary

You should do the following when conducting an interview:

Dress in a non-intimidating manner.
Adopt a friendly, relaxed and pleasant attitude.
Introduce yourself.
Explain the purpose of the interview.
Tell the respondent what you will use the data for.
Allow the respondent to introduce him- or herself and to ask questions.
Prepare well for the interview.
Conduct the interview in a professional and courteous manner.
Take notes during the interview.
Strictly manage the time for the interview.
End the interview on a positive note and thank the respondent.
Work through your notes as soon as possible after the interview.

You can achieve flexibility in your interview through the following:

The interview can take place face-to-face or online.
The venue for the face-to-face interview can be your home, office or any other suitable and safe place.
The interview can be structured, semi-structured or unstructured.
You can use different forms of questions.
You can use prompts to stimulate discussion.
Interviews can involve one respondent or a group of respondents.
The interview can be recorded in a variety of ways.
Interviews can be followed up in a variety of ways.

Close

There are three issues that are critically important for the success of an interview.

They are a positive attitude, proper preparation and professional execution.

If you pay attention to these three issues, you should succeed in gathering the data that you need for your research.

Good luck with your studies.

Thank you.

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ARTICLE 79: Research Methods for Ph. D. and Master’s Degree Studies: Data Collection Methods: Interviewing Part 3 of 4 Parts: Focus Group Discussions

9th Nov 2020 No Comments

Written by Dr. Hannes Nel

Can and should focus group discussion be used in quantitative research?

Can inputs obtained from participants in a focus group be quantified?

Is such data of any value to natural scientists?

Or is focus group discussions the reserve of qualitative research methods?

And should social scientists take note of the opinions of other social scientists?

Or would they simply share more of the same?

And why would the opinions of other academics be more authoritative than your own opinion?

I discuss data collection through focus group discussions in this article.

Focus groups are sometimes also called ‘group interviews’. You, as the researcher, will act as the facilitator of the discussions, thereby collecting data for your research.

The focus group discussion is an interview style designed for small groups of individuals who, because of their prior knowledge, experience or expertise can add value to a research project. As such it is an interview with a purposefully sampled group of people rather than each person individually.

Focus group interviewing can help you learn through discussion about almost any topic in a wide variety of disciplines. Group members are encouraged to share their opinions with the rest of the group. You, as the researcher, will normally facilitate the process, and you will need to take detailed notes on what is discussed. Somebody other than you can also be tasked in advance to take notes, or even minutes of the focus group event. It is also you who will analyse and use the information gathered after the event.

By creating a social environment in which group members are stimulated by the perceptions and ideas of others, you can increase the quality and richness of data through a more efficient approach than one-to-one interviewing. You can also use focus groups as a technique to confirm data collected by other methods.

Focus group interviews can be used to collect data quickly and conveniently from several people simultaneously. Group interaction is important. Although focus group interviews can be used as a stand-alone data collection method, it is more valuable, valid and accurate if triangulation is used to corroborate data gathered through focus groups and other data collection methods and sources. The technique is useful for research involving beliefs, impressions, experiences, and emotional concerns.

Some may feel that a focus group should be as small as possible. However, the arguments why a small group is better than a large group can also be used as reason why a large group would deliver better and more valid results. For example, a small group might make it easier to manage the number of inputs given. However, statistically the larger number of inputs given, the more accurate will be the average of the inputs as a true reflection of the “truth”. One or a few strong or vocal participants might force the discussions in a particular direction and in favour of a particular point of view. However, the larger the group, the more “strong” participants there should be, which facilitates objectivity. Control and the transcription of many inputs can be more difficult in a large group than in a small group, though.

Focus groups could, for example, be representatives from universities discussing ways in which to improve student performance, young people sharing their experiences with drug dealers targeting them, and many more. The discussion is usually based on a series of questions (the focus group ‘schedule’). As the researcher, you will usually act as a facilitator for the group by posing questions, keeping the discussion flowing and ensuring that all group members participate to the best of their ability.

Group members interact with each other while you gather information by taking notes, making an audio or image recording of the discussions and asking salient questions to the group in general. You will mostly analyse the information afterwards using conventional qualitative methods: most commonly, content or thematic analysis. Focus groups are distinctive for the method of data collection rather than for the method of data analysis.

Focus group interviews can facilitate the collection of information for research purposes. The following are advantages that focus group interviews can offer a researcher:

It is flexible in terms of the number of participants, groups, costs, duration, etc.
It is efficient in the sense that a large amount of information can be collected from potentially large groups of people in a relatively short time.
It can facilitate the understanding of previously unclear topics.
It allows you to better understand how members of a group arrive at or change their conclusions about interrelated topics and issues.
It can be used to gather information from transient populations, such as academics attending a one or two-day workshop.
It places participants on a more even footing with each other and you.
The facilitator of a focus group can introduce the exploration of related but unanticipated topics as they arise during the group’s discussion.
It is not necessary to follow complex sampling processes to compile a focus group because criteria for the composition of a focus group are fairly simple.

Despite the advantages that focus group interviews offer, it is not a flawless data collection method. The following are some disadvantages that go with focus group interviews:

The quality of the data is dependent on the facilitating and motivating skills of the facilitator.
Focus group attendance is voluntary, and an insufficient number of individuals may attend planned sessions.
The duration of each focus group session needs to be brief to keep the participation and support of the members of the group.
The limited time available for a focus group mostly does not allow for the discussion of many questions.
Dominant personalities may overpower and steer the group’s responses in an unwanted direction.
Information gathered through focus group interviews needs to be processed with care to ensure validity and accuracy of conclusions.

There are several pitfalls that you should avoid when undertaking focus group interviews. These pitfalls can reduce the quality of the information gathered. The following are such pitfalls:

Organising a focus group for the wrong reason, for example because you don’t know what else to do or just because it sounds like a good idea.
Not explaining the objectives of the focus group clearly to the participants.
Using too few focus groups or including too few members in the focus groups.
Using too many focus groups or focus group members per group.
Poor facilitation of and preparation for the focus group meetings.
Allowing an individual or a small group of individuals to bully other members or to steer the focus group discussions in an unwanted direction.

The following are rules for analysing focus group data which are different from the analysis of other textual data such as field notes or interview data:

Provide quotations to support your evaluation of what the various trends and patterns of discussion are.
Use quotations to illustrate the relevance for discussion of an argument or point rather than to prove its validity.
Introduce each group member in terms of his or her profile to show that they have been invited on relevant merit.
Raise a point, concept, theory or cognitive pattern supported by reputable sources of information before inviting discussions.

Summary

The focus group discussion is an interview style designed for gathering data from small groups of experts.

Focus group discussions are distinctive for the method of data collection.

You can use focus group discussions to collect data and to learn.

Some will argue that you should avoid quantifying results or offering magnitudes.

The rationale behind this is that statistical analysis of focus group inputs is seldom valid.

I do not agree.

Even if only opinions or beliefs, focus group inputs can corroborate conclusions and findings based on statistical data.

After all, focus group interviewing should not be the only data collection method that you use.

You can improve the quality and richness of the data that you collect by creating a friendly social atmosphere.

Data can be collected quickly and conveniently from several people simultaneously.

The members of the focus group can often corroborate data through their shared expertise, knowledge and experience.

Focus group discussions are especially useful for collecting data involving beliefs, impressions, experiences and emotional concerns.

The size of the group will have an impact on the effectiveness and efficiency of the data collection process.

The analysis of the data is usually done by the researcher alone.

Focus group discussions must be well planned, prepared and facilitated.

You must know in advance what you wish to achieve with the focus group discussion.

You should share the purpose of the discussions with the group members.

The participants in the group discussions must have knowledge and expertise to add value to your research project.

Close

I would like to encourage you to use focus groups to collect data for your research.

None of us has perfect knowledge.

And we do not always think objectively.

You should always be open minded when conducting research.

Accept that you are conducting the research to learn and be willing to listen to the opinions and advice of others.

This applies equally to social and natural sciences.

Enjoy your studies.

Thank you.

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ARTICLE 78: Research Methods for Ph. D. and Master’s Degree Studies: Interviewing Part 2 of 4: Online interviewing

7th Nov 2020 No Comments

Written by Dr. Hannes Nel

The world is changing at an incredible pace.

I wonder how my late parents would have responded to the laptop computer and the internet.

I guess they would probably have refused to touch it, let alone use it.

And they were rather open-minded.

As far as I am concerned, it is the one thing that I would have loved to see develop even further.

Even though it is already hard to keep pace with what we now have.

I discuss online interviewing in this article.

Any type of interview can be conducted electronically. Electronic interviews can take place either synchronously or asynchronously. Synchronous environments include real-time chat rooms, instant messenger protocols, and real-time threaded communications. Such environments provide you and the interviewees an experience similar to face-to-face interaction insofar as they provide a mechanism for a back-and-forth exchange of questions and answers in almost real time over really long distances, actually world-wide. Computer facilities, such as Skype, ZOOM, etc. facilitate visual communication.

Asynchronous environments include the use of e-mail, forums, and privately hosted bulletin posting areas. Asynchronous environments are typically used by researchers undertaking survey-based research or a Delphi technique.

Technological developments and the growth of the internet have developed opportunities for online interviewing in qualitative research and have reduced the problems related to face-to-face interviews. The internet has altered the nature of the context in which research can take place and how knowledge is constructed by offering a different space and dimension in which conventional research designs and methods can be used and adapted.

Online interviews can be used to gather original data via the internet with the intention of analysing these to provide new evidence in relation to a specific research question. This contrasts with secondary internet research, that uses existing documents or information sources found online. Online interviews can be conducted asynchronously, i.e. in non-real-time, and synchronously, i.e. in real-time and can involve audio, textual as well as visual exchanges. Currently, emails, Facebook, bulletin boards and discussion groups, including focus groups and forums, are the most used methods of asynchronous online interviewing. Synchronous approaches focus on text-based chat groups, instant message protocols, voice-over internet protocol (VOIP) and visual conferencing to ask and answer questions and to see interview participants while conversing.

In synchronous interviews the interaction and sharing of experiences are framed by the researcher and participant(s) online presence. The real-time nature of online interviews, whether one-to-one or focus-group interviews, can encourage spontaneous interactions between participants and the researcher, whether they are involved in text-based one-to-one or group interviews or multi-channel visual interviews.

Online synchronous interviewing facilitated by online communication platforms can lead to rapid, real-time discussions. Creative use of interactive visual stimulus means they can be valuable platforms for facilitating immediate and dynamic group interactions and creating new forms of knowledge. These interactions can elevate participants’ awareness of each other and narrow the psychological distance between participants as well as enhance the feeling of joint involvement. Alternatively, you as the researcher, can set up your online forum or use an external provider to offer both synchronous text communication and a graphical representation of the environment.

An issue that can be challenging for both researchers and participants of online interviews is the fast-paced nature of online discussions, which can lead to researchers and participants lagging. The distinction between responding and ending can become blurred or responses can become brief, with the result that important data might not be shared.

Increased bandwidth and the availability of inexpensive, easy-to-use technologies have made it more viable to conduct synchronous online audio and visual interviews. Synchronous online focus groups can be set up with tools such as instant messaging and chat rooms and can offer a less threatening interview environment than visual interviews because they offer no visual clues about other participants, although you will need to make participants aware that they are taking part in a research project. You also need to establish a friendly atmosphere and to act as moderator and facilitator of the discussions. The speed and complexity of participant interactions can result in a chaotic script which can be frustrating and lead to misinterpretation of the meaning of what people said and loss of some information.

Asynchronous interviews that are conducted in non-real time are far easier to set up than synchronous interviews in terms of technological requirements. Email, for example, allows you to ask questions and receive responses as and when it suits you and the interviewee. Even so, a clear protocol in terms of the interviewing process is still needed. Also keep in mind that you will need the permission of the holders of online blogs, email addresses, etc. to use the data shared online.

Textual data collected asynchronously are in written form, therefore there is no need to transcribe. This increases the accuracy of the transcripts and reduces the potential for error. It may also enhance the interpretation of what is communicated by you as the researcher. Participants may compensate for the lack of non-verbal cues by ensuring that their descriptions portray the level of meaning and emotion that they wish to communicate, allowing a greater level of transparency and sensitivity to the original context of the data. The explicit expression of emotion in written language can be more easily interpreted and incorporated into analyses than the implicit emotional nuances offered in spoken communication.

Asynchronous data collection can be simple to administer because you only need to send your questions to the interviewees and then wait for a reply, making it a questionnaire rather than an interview. However, it can take several days or weeks for participants to reply to the questions. Further, there is a greater risk of non-response from participants than with synchronous interviews. Participants can even withdraw from the project if they regard other obligations as more important.

You may need to work hard to maintain a rapport with participants who only engage irregularly with your research project. Probes or prompts to main questions can get lost in participants’ electronic communication traffic. It is relatively easy for participants to delete messages or questions if they are too busy to respond. Spontaneity of interaction can be lost if participants digress to subjects outside the research project, making it difficult to maintain the flow of the discussion.

When conducting online interviews, you need to decide how you are going to access the target population and how you will obtain information from all the participants. When using visual conferencing with certain populations, access and availability can be greatly improved because individuals are not only connected through their home computers but also on their cell phones, tablets, reading devices or at internet cafés. For most people, this is not a problem, but older people and people with disabilities, for example, may not have access to or be able to take part in an online interview.

Whichever mode (synchronous or asynchronous interviewing) or type (one-to-one or group interview, visual or audio) you choose for your online research, you need to consider how you are going to establish a research relationship with your participants. You also need to consider the impact of the online interaction on those being researched.

In face-to-face interviews, the presentation of self is based not only on what participants choose to show, for example through gestures or tone of voice, but also on how that is perceived by others participating in social interaction. In online text-based interviews, the written word becomes the sole means of building rapport and trust. When face-to-face contact is absent, you need to keep in mind the potential obstacles that anonymity and disembodiment pose in attempting to establish a relationship of trust with other people online. When visual and social gestures and cues in online interviews are not visible, such as friendly gestures (nodding, smiling, eye contact, etc.) these have to be translated into text and you should more quickly and with greater clarity establish the profiles of the participants to determine if they can add value to your research.

Unless you are using web-cameras or visual conferencing, you and the other participants are hidden from each other. This has a detrimental effect on the discussions that will take place, although it can promote the accuracy and validity of information on sensitive topics.

Any interview situation, no matter how formalised, restricted or standardised, relies upon interaction between participants who are constantly engaged in interpretive practice. When using the internet as a communicative social space to host interaction between participants, you need to consider critically the authenticity of the data that you obtain and interpret. Online interviews or a mixture of face-to-face and online media are not less authentic or truthful than offline data. Standards of authenticity should be confirmed, even though you will need to largely rely on the trustworthiness of the participants.

Summary

Any type of interview can be conducted electronically.

Electronic interviews can take place either synchronously or asynchronously.

Technological developments and the growth of the internet have developed opportunities for online interviewing.

Synchronous approaches focus on text-based chat groups, instant message protocols, voice-over internet protocol and visual conferencing for interactive interviewing.

Currently social media are the most used for asynchronous online interviewing.

Online synchronous interviewing facilitated by online communication platforms can also lead to rapid, real-time discussions.

The fast-paced nature of online discussions can lead to researchers and participants lagging.

This can lead to the collection of superficial data.

Increased bandwidth and the availability of inexpensive, easy-to-use technologies made it more viable to conduct synchronous online audio and visual interviews.

Asynchronous interviews that are conducted non-real time are far easier to set up than synchronous interviews in terms of technological requirements.

You will need the permission of the holders of online social media platforms to use the data shared online.

Textual data collected asynchronously are in written form, therefore there is no need to transcribe the data.

Asynchronous data collection can be simple to administer.

Maintaining contact and rapport with interviewees can be challenging.

When conducting online interviews, you must decide how you are going to access the target population. You also need to decide how you will obtain information from all the participants.

Especially older people are reluctant to participate in online interviewing for a variety of reasons.

You should consider the impact of the online interaction on the interviewees.

Not being able to see participants in an online interview makes it difficult to establish trust and loyalty.

It will also be difficult to establish if the interviewee has enough relevant expertise, knowledge and experience to add value to your research project.

Online interviews or a mixture of face-to-face and online media are not less authentic or truthful than offline data.

Close

It is difficult to keep pace with the rapid development of electronics and the internet.

New interviewing opportunities are created all the time.

You can render your research much more efficient if you stay informed about new developments.

And, of course, you must use the facilities and opportunities that become available.

Enjoy your studies.

Thank you.

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