research methods – Page 7

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ARTICLE 30: Research Methods for Ph. D. and Master’s Degree Studies: Grounded Theory

26th Aug 2020 No Comments

Written by Dr Hannes Nel

Introduction

Hello, I am Hannes Nel and I will discuss Grounded Theory in this post.

What is grounded theory?

Grounded theory is a type of inductive thematic analysis (ITA).

It was developed by Glaser and Strauss in the 1960s.

Glaser and Strauss supported symbolic interactionism as a philosophical perspective.

How is grounded theory used?

Grounded theory uses inductive reasoning to generate the theoretical understandings, of research by grounding the theory in the data that the researcher collected.

It is a highly systematic method for mostly studying social experiences, interactions and structures.

Grounded theory discovers, develops and provisionally verifies phenomena.

This means that the data originate in the framework for the study and should deliver logical and relevant conclusions.

Integrating grounded theory with other research and data collection methods

It is almost always necessary to use grounded theory in conjunction with one or more other research methods.

Any data collection method may be used in conjunction with grounded theory methods, bearing in mind that data collection should build on a naturalistic, interpretive philosophy.

Grounded theory methods specify analytical strategies, not data collection methods.

Grounded theory:

Is a qualitative research approach.
Requires an open mind, objectivity and ethical and responsible analysis of data.
Is especially popular amongst those who study humanistic sciences.
Can also be used for the study of non-human phenomena.

The purpose of grounded theory

The primary purpose of grounded theory is to generate theory from observations of real life.

Grounded theory aims at the discovery of regularities, the identification of categories or elements and the establishment of their connections.

Theoretical models and new theoretical concepts and arguments should be created and continuously revised as you collect and analyse data.

Grounded theory holds as a basic view that qualitative researchers do not go around testing an existing body of knowledge, but rather that they build new theory by allowing their data collection to steer their thoughts and conclusions into the unknown.

The grounded theory process

Grounded theory research should be done in a specific and well-defined context.

The research should be grounded in social reality and not be just an exercise in theorizing.

It uses a typical research process of data collection, data analysis, coming to conclusions, and formulating findings.

Findings should be transformable into formal theoretical models.

The process of collecting data is a prerequisite for analysis, while theory development should result from the analysis.

Researchers sometimes think that grounded theory is about the research process, especially data collection and analyses.

Although data collection and analysis are important research activities, the essence of grounded theory does not lie in the research process but rather in the attitude of the researcher towards the data and the purpose of the research.

It requires that each piece of the data is systematically compared with other data on the same or related issue or topic.

You should not ignore small units of text.

It just might have the potential to improve current theory and practice.

At the same time, you should not waste time with data that is clearly of no significance, because analysis is a time-consuming activity.

You can compare existing data with other existing data or with new data.

Grounded theory is based on the subjective experiences of humans.

You may also use your own experiences to understand the experiences of others.

Guard against just adopting the ideas, perceptions or models of others.

If you do this, you run the risk of just packaging old, existing knowledge differently.

Verification is a natural element of any scientific research because it strengthens the authenticity and validity of the findings and provides you with a measure of security.

Data collected should not be over-verified, because grounded theory epistemology leans strongly towards the generation of new theory rather than the analysis of existing theory.

Deconstruction can be used to lend a good measure of authenticity to the data.

Do not neglect to acknowledge the work of other researchers that you consulted and quoted.

Computer software

You can use dedicated computer programmes to arrange, compare and analyse the data that you collected.

ATLAS.Ti is an example of software that you can use.

There are a good number of others. I am just mentioning ATLAS.Ti because it is the one that I used and am familiar with.

You can easily find suitable software by just Googling for them.

Most dedicated computer programmes make use of coding.

Coding can be described as a sophisticated form of notecards like the ones that we used many decades ago.

You will create codes for salient data with most of the available relevant software.

You can also write explanatory notes in the form of memorandums.

The programme groups related codes and memorandums together.

This enables you to get a clear and holistic picture of concepts and arguments so that you can more easily come to conclusions and findings.

Your findings should be or lead to new knowledge, theories and models.

From the codes and memorandums, new theory and new theoretical models can be discovered through inductive reasoning.

You will, of course, not be required to develop new knowledge or theories on master’s degree level, but you will need to show that you understand and can apply existing knowledge and theories.

Inductive reasoning entails systematic data collection and analysis which leads to discovery, development and verification.

Most importantly, dedicated programmes substantially simplify the process of writing your research report.

Grounded theory methodology needs not to be limited to computer analysis only.

You can, for example, still use the old notecard system or you can develop your own system on a computer.

The value of grounded theory

Grounded theory enables you:

To step back and critically analyse situations.
To recognise the tendency towards bias.
To think abstractly.
To be flexible and open to helpful criticism.
To be sensitive to the words and actions of respondents.
To adopt a sense of absorption and devotion to the work process.

Utilizing grounded theory for research should enable you to see beyond the ordinary and to arrive at new understandings of social life.

The most important value of grounded theory is that it enables you to generate theory and to ground that theory in data.

Paradigms that can be used with grounded theory

Before we look at paradigms that can be used with grounded theory – don’t be too concerned if at this stage you do not know the paradigms.

I will discuss 29 such paradigms in later posts.

I suggest that you then return to my earlier posts on research methods to get the bigger picture.

Any paradigmatic approach can be used with grounded theory.

Mostly, however, grounded theory displays elements of post-modernism as well as symbolic interactionism.

Post-modernism lends itself to the achievement of formal theory while symbolic interactionism implies that the study is grounded in a specific empirical world.

As already mentioned, grounded theory requires elements of interpretivism as well.

There are two versions of grounded theory, namely objectivist and constructivist grounded theory.

Objectivist grounded theory is rooted in a positivist paradigmatic approach.

The objectivist viewpoint claims that it is possible to discover objective truth.

The data already exists, and you will need to discover theory from them.

Constructivist grounded theory has its roots in an interpretivist paradigmatic approach.

The constructivist viewpoint rejects the objectivist viewpoint, contending that there is no objective truth waiting to be discovered.

Constructivist grounded theory assumes that truth exists only through interaction with the realities of the world.

Meaning is, therefore, constructed rather than discovered.

Summary

The following are the elements of grounded theory:

The purpose of grounded theory is to build new theory.
Current theory or observation can serve as the basis for new theory.
Grounded theory deals with how data and phenomena are interpreted and used rather than how they are collected.
You should systematically review units of data as they become available.
Any research method should utilize the philosophy behind grounded theory, meaning that any researcher should be open-minded and objective.
Building new theory requires analytical induction, meaning that new theory emerges from collected data inductively through a series of steps.
Grounded theory requires the development of five interrelated properties.
- The theory must closely fit the relevant field of study in which the new theory will be used.
- The new theory must be readily understandable to laymen concerned with the field of study.
- The new theory must be relevant to a multitude of diverse daily situations within the focus area of the field of study.
- New knowledge should be generalizable as widely as possible.
- The new knowledge must allow those who use it to have enough trust in the validity and accuracy of the new knowledge, theories and models.
Dedicated computer programmes enable you to discover regularities in data, to identify categories or elements and to establish their connections.

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ARTICLE 29: Research Methods for Ph. D. and Masters Degree Studies: Field Research

25th Aug 2020 No Comments

Written by Dr. Hannes Nel

Introduction

Once when I sent out questionnaires for a research project, the CEO of a manufacturing plant collected and worked through the questionnaires completed by his employees.

There were probably 100 to 200 completed questionnaires. He removed all the questionnaires that he felt could put him in a bad spot and sent me the rest.

Of course, I did not use any of them.

I was fortunate that one of his employees phoned and told me what he did.

Field Research

For many researchers, the collection of data involves or at least includes fieldwork.

Not all field research deals with people.

Also, fieldwork is not limited to research in nature only.

Field research can require the use of quantitative or qualitative analysis.

Preparing for field research

You should first refine your research project and develop your data collection instruments before you embark on fieldwork.

This is because your topic and the context in which your research will be done will determine if you should do fieldwork or not.

Where field research will take place

Field research, or fieldwork, means conducting empirical research in real-world settings.

You can do fieldwork in a classroom, observing students or lecturers, in factories, on ships, in aircraft and many more.

Doing fieldwork is not a must for all research.

You will use fieldwork if your research topic demands it if you feel that it will enable you to do accurate and valid research, if your study leader expects it from you, if you can afford it, and if it is something that you will enjoy doing.

The research process

In the spirit of grounded theory, you should be open-minded about the realities that you encounter.

Let the data that you collect lead your thinking processes.

Don’t try to bend what you see and experience to fit your preconceived ideas.

Preconceptions that you should get rid of include personal beliefs and initial theoretical propositions.

It might be necessary to divide your observations into different categories.

Don’t categorize your observations and events prematurely, though.

The first days in the field are often seen as the most challenging and emotionally rewarding.

Meeting a new group of people in their environment, about which you might not know much, can be uncomfortable, perhaps even intimidating.

Remember that such people might not trust you in the beginning.

People are suspicious of the unknown and they may resist you and your research.

Your research will be as intimidating to them as their environment to you.

If your doctoral or master’s degree studies are an extension of your previous studies, you might feel more comfortable with the environment in which you will do research.

Even so, you will probably encounter some new experiences and observations.

Doing site visits is a formally recognized way of doing fieldwork.

Site visits can be the only data collection method that you may use.

However, it is mostly necessary to collect other data as well.

You should be able to develop categories, propositions and eventually meaning based on what you experience and observe in the field.

Participant observation takes place during a site visit and a site visit may include other data collection activities.

Can you see how you can integrate different research methods?

Experimental methods, for example, can fit in well with fieldwork.

An advantage of site visits is that they enable data to be collected from many field settings as part of the same study.

The data from any single setting or site may be limited in terms of quantity, quality and variety.

Studying cross-site patterns might be necessary for comparison, to identify trends or patterns in phenomena or behavior and for corroboration of data.

Not just any field setting will be suitable for research and data collection.

Difference In functions, context, time and size can render some sites irrelevant to your research topic.

It might sometimes be necessary to visit the same site at different times and more than once.

An example of this is where you do research on the effect over time of global warming on glaciers, rivers, vegetation, etc.

Site visits are likely to be more rigid than participant observation.

Site visits usually follow a pre-established schedule, as well as an agenda while you are in the field.

Site visits can be time-consuming and require substantial preparation.

It can also require good timing, for example, if you were to do research on the migration of salmon up rivers to spawn.

Interviewing, conversing with participants, and observing them while they do something that you do research on will also require good planning and timing.

Members of a field setting for interviewing may have helped you to arrange the schedule.

They will probably use the opportunity to schedule the interviews so that it will suit them.

The disadvantage of this is that they can also prepare their responses to your questions in advance, thereby making it artificial and probably not valid.

Their responses may be idealized and what they think you would like to hear.

This is an example of reflexivity.

Reflexivity in this context means that the presence of the researcher affects the people being studied.

The same kind of situation can happen in the case of participant observation.

A further complication arises when you are accompanied by your host during the site visit.

The host may wish to monitor you and see and hear what you learn from his employees.

Paradigmatic approaches that fit well with field research include behaviorism, constructivist, critical race theory, critical theory, functionalism, neoliberalism, positivism, pragmatism, radicalism and scientism.

Summary

Field research can deal with people, phenomena in nature or even history.

It may require qualitative and/or quantitative research.

You will need to do a literature study and decide how you will collect further data first before you will know what kind of field research you should do.

Fieldwork can be done almost anywhere.

You need to be open-minded and objective about the data that you collect through fieldwork.

Also, be prepared to go through a process of mental adjustment. You will need time to grow accustomed to strange people and an unknown environment.

The contextual conditions between participant observation and interviewing are not the same, but both can be damaged by reflexivity.

You can integrate fieldwork with most other research methods.

Fieldwork is not always necessary for all research on especially the doctoral level.

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ARTICLE 28: Research Methods for Ph. D. and Master’s Degree Studies: Experimental Methods

25th Aug 2020 No Comments

Written by Dr Hannes Nel

Introduction

Can lessons from events be gained in a laboratory?

Lessons that will apply to every place and all people?

You be the judge of that after reading this article.

Quantitative experimental methods

The essential feature or experimental methods is that you deliberately control and manipulate the conditions which determine the results in which you are interested.

To achieve this, you will need to introduce an intervention and measure the difference that it makes.

It is mostly used by people doing quantitative research and in natural sciences.

The precondition for research to be experimental is that it should meet the requirements for scientific research.

The requirements for scientific research are that the researcher must have control over the variables, careful measurement, and establishing cause and effect relationships.

An experiment involves making a change in the value of one variable – called the independent variable – and observing the effect of that change on another variable – called the dependent variable.

Using a fixed design, experimental methods can be confirmatory, seeking to prove or disprove a hypothesis, or explanatory, which would be discovering the effect of certain variables.

The variability and validity of experimental methods often depend on the ability to replicate the results from an experiment in similar situations and generalizing the findings to other similar situations.

You can, for example, test the psychological effect of the COVID-19 pandemic on people by asking them relevant questions during an interview.

You can also ask people to complete a questionnaire.

Responses to the questions can be measured in different ways, depending on the type and context of the experiment.

In the experimental methodology, generalization is referred to as “external validity”.

External validity means that the same results will be obtained with different groups and in different places.

You can imagine that external validity will not be easy to achieve.

This is mostly because of the number of different external variables that can influence your experiment.

The less external variables there are, the better will the chances be that you will achieve external validity.

Experiments can be experiments in a laboratory, field experiments or natural experiments.

Regardless of where the experiments are done, they require quite some planning and preparation.

Most, if not all, tests that are done in a laboratory are examples of experimental research.

Experiments in a laboratory

A laboratory experiment would be an experiment that is conducted under highly controlled conditions where accurate measurements are possible.

Laboratory experiments are mostly easy to replicate.

That is because standardized procedures and measurements of variables are used.

There are not many external variables over which you have no or little control.

Laboratory tests, however, do not always replicate real life, with the result that findings will probably not be generalizable outside the laboratory.

Field experiments

Field experiments are done in real-life environments.

The researcher still manipulates the independent variable but in a real-life setting.

Findings in field experiments should be generalizable to real-life settings.

A limitation of field experiments is that there will probably be many external variables that might bias the results.

Consequently, it would be difficult for other researchers to replicate the results.

Natural experiments

Natural experiments are also conducted in real-life environments.

They differ from field experiments in that the researcher cannot manipulate the independent variables – events occur as they would in real life.

Behavior in a natural experiment is more likely to reflect real life because of its natural setting.

It might be necessary for covert observation.

That is, the target group for the research does not know that they are being observed.

The reason for this is that people often behave differently when they know that they are being watched than they would normally behave.

This is even worse if they know that video footage is being taken of them.

Covert research can have ethical consequences which you should consider and remove in advance.

The researcher has no control over external variables that might bias the results.

Experiments in qualitative research

The parallel in qualitative research is when a part or the whole qualitative research study is the subject of attempted replication of a phenomenon or event.

For example, within a single qualitative research study, replication can sometimes be achieved by conducting more than one of the same or at least similar case studies.

The more similar the findings from the cases, the more a replication might be claimed.

However, replication is not always possible because of the dynamic nature of human phenomena.

Paradigmatic approaches that fit well with experimental methods include behaviourism, empiricism, modernism, phenomenology, scientism and symbolic interactionism.

Summary

In experimental research:

You, as the researcher, manipulate the conditions for the research.
You must have control over the variables.
Careful measurement of phenomena or behavior will be necessary.
You will need to establish a cause and effect relationship.
External validity will not be easy to achieve.

Experimental methods can be confirmatory or explanatory.

An independent variable is the input variable, whereas the dependent variable is the outcome variable – the result.

It is not easy to achieve external validity with any of the experimental research types.

That is because of differences in variables between the place where the experiment is done and real-life conditions.

Experiments can be experiments in a laboratory, field experiments or natural experiments.

The conclusions of experimental methods can be achieved through qualitative research.

Close

In closing,

I used one additional source of information for this article. That is McLeod, S.A. (2012, Jan 14) Experimental method. Simply psychology: https://www.simplypsychology/org/experimental-method.html. I accessed the source on 10 March 2020.

The main source of information that I use for all my articles and videos on Ph. D. and master’s degree research is my book entitled Preparing Qualitative Research Reports.

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ARTICLE 27: Research Methods for Ph. D. and Master’s Degree Studies: Ethnography

24th Aug 2020 No Comments

Written by Dr Hannes Nel

Introduction

Why would academics do research about people that they probably regard as inferior?

In a positive vein, probably because they want to help those who are less fortunate than them.

Did the researchers ask the people if they needed or wanted help?

I would think yes, at least most of the time. But not always.

And if the researchers try to help, will they do the right thing?

Unfortunately, not always.

I think it can be humiliating and frustrating to have outsiders dissect your value system and the way you have lived for centuries.

And then they tell you how you should live and what you should do.

Remember, these people know their culture and way of life and they are watching you while you observe them.

Sometimes it can be funny, but it can also be embarrassing and lead to serious damage and harm to both the people being researched and the researcher.

It is not easy for an outsider to understand the culture and being of another population group.

People with a populist orientation will probably feel that such differences are not important and that it should be eliminated.

That, however, is not the reality for many nations.

For an outsider ethnography as a research method is much more difficult than we think. That is also why many researchers embarrassed themselves when they tried to tell the world how people from other cultures think, live and do things.

What is ethnography?

Some may regard ethnography and ethnomethodology as the same thing.

They are not entirely wrong.

Ethnomethodology is the philosophy behind ethnic research.

Ethnomethodology claims that research deals with everyday life amongst people in a social setting; where currently observed behavior and interaction provides the most accurate and valid data.

For the purposes of this post, ethnomethodology is regarded as a paradigm that can be used with ethnography, which is a research method.

Ethnography, therefore, is the method by which ethnic research is conducted.

I will discuss ethnomethodology as a paradigm in a future post.

How did ethnography begin?

Ethnography mostly has colonialism as its foundation.

It relates to distant cultures that were occupied by the seafaring nations, largely between the fifteenth and seventeenth centuries.

Colonialism came to an end in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.

The influence of colonization can still be seen in what used to be colonies and is popular as a topic of research.

Unfortunately, some researchers call any kind of quantitative research ethnography.

Ethnography has traditionally been associated with social and cultural anthropology.

Sources consulted in ethnography

Ethnographic research sometimes needs to be done through semi-structured interviews or literature study that will include official documents.

This can include historical data and not just current observations.

The process of ethnographic study

Ethnography encompasses forms of research that are extremely diverse from a methodological point of view.

Ethnography can have a contemporary or historical focus.

It is the aim of ethnography to establish the hidden inferences that distinguish, for example, different eating habits.

Such a phenomenon is then placed in its social and cultural context.

Ethnography, therefore, is oriented toward studying shared meanings and practices, or culture.

As a researcher, you might need to study a community for a long period, perhaps years to gain some understanding of their culture and value system.

Although ethnography is traditionally associated with long-term fieldwork, some aspects are employed in applied settings.

Applied, or current settings require a naturalistic research approach.

Observing individual and group behavior in its natural context and participating in that context can generate insights that might otherwise have eluded you.

Ethnography follows a holistic perspective, based on the premise that human behavior and culture are complicated phenomena and are composed of, and influenced by, a multitude of factors.

These might include historical precedents, the physical context in which people live and work, the social structures in which individuals are embedded and the symbolic environment in which they act.

Ethnography assumes that all human behavior is intentional and observable.

Research should, therefore, be oriented towards understanding the reasoning behind people’s actions.

This means that you, as the researcher, and often not a member of the community, will probably spend time living in the community observing and doing in-depth interviews, reading and researching primary source material and observing the lives of the people that you wish to study.

Eventually, you will compile all this data and analysis to create a full picture of the group you are studying.

The picture includes not only reporting what people do or say but also some analysis that tells us about the social structure and worldview of the community.

You should not disrupt the environment or routine of the target for your research.

This means that you, as the researcher, might need to be “invisible” and involve yourself in unobtrusive observation.

In this instance, an etic approach will probably be more effective than an emic approach.

You will need to establish trust and rapport between you and those whom you do research on.

Also, you should guard against becoming emotionally involved with the target group for your research because it might cloud your judgement.

Research reports are in the form of a narrative, with key evidence, such as detailed descriptions of episodes, being reproduced to illustrate your findings and recommendations.

Paradigmatic approaches that fit well with ethnography include relativism, behaviorism, constructivism, critical race theory, critical theory, ethnomethodology and post-colonialism.

Summary

Ethnography literary means “to write about a group of people”.

Research topics and problem statements or questions require the study of social and cultural processes and shared meanings within a group of people.

Participant observation is the method most used in ethnographic research.

Normally ethnographers will spend lots of time in the field to study the lives of people from within their naturalistic setting.

The “thick” detail of the data that you can obtain through participant observation usually fulfils the key criterion of validity far better than data obtained by other methods.

Ethnographic research can also consult data sources such as interviews and literature studies.

It also offers flexibility and can provide the basis for inductively generating new theoretical explanations.

Ethnographic research can:

follow a qualitative or quantitative approach,
will probably follow an etic approach, although an emic approach would also be possible, and
can be done by one or a group of researchers.

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ARTICLE 25: Research Methods for Ph. D. Studies: Case Studies

21st Aug 2020 No Comments

Written by Dr Hannes Nel

Introduction

There is an increasing number of COVID-19 cases across the world without a defined chain of transmission.

It is easy to miss infected people who might have come into contact with the virus.

New cases increasingly crop up in unsuspected places.

There is still much uncertainty regarding how and where the virus is spreading.

Rumours abound, and scaremongering is becoming as serious a problem as the virus itself.

This is a perfect example of a problem that can be researched through case study research.

Case study research

Case study research can follow almost any research paradigm.

The exceptions can be technicist paradigms, especially scientism, rationalism, positivism and modernism.

Then again, I believe one can even use case studies to do research in natural science.

Case study means doing systematic research on contemporary phenomena or events.

Like action research, it is linked to a specific time, site and context.

Multiple sources of evidence can be used.

A case study strives towards a holistic and comprehensive understanding of how participants relate to and interact with each other in a specific situation.

Case study research looks for meaning in a situation or event.

It can be used across a variety of disciplines to answer epistemological questions.

Research questions can be answered by an individual, two people or a whole group.

Although answers are given by members of a target group, the focus is on a system of action rather than just the sample for the research.

Case study research can be selective, focusing on one or two issues that are fundamental to understanding the system being examined.

Case study research investigates behavior, but not just the behavior of the target group for the research.

It strives to identify the behavior of an entire system.

For example, the researcher might do research on how people react to those who might have come into contact with the COVID-19 virus by interviewing such people.

Or they can determine how people respond to such “almost infected” people by observing how family and friends react when they return home from where they could have come into contact with the virus.

The researcher will probably try to identify a pattern of behavior that can be regarded as generally applicable.

You will need to come to a deeper understanding of the dynamics of the situation before a behavioral pattern can be identified and described.

A strong point of the case study method is that almost any data collection method can be used.

For example, participant observation, interviews, audio-visual material, document surveys and even the collection of physical artifacts.

You should determine in advance what evidence to gather and what analysis techniques to use with the data that you collect.

Data collection will probably be mostly qualitative in nature, but it can also include quantitative data.

A second strong point of the case study method is that it deals directly with the individual case in its actual context.

Case studies get as close to the subject of interest as they possibly can.

This is achieved because direct observation in natural settings can be used.

Also, because you can have access to subjective factors, such as thoughts, feelings, desires, etc.

Surely you will ask people how they feel, how they experience the situation, etc. when you interview them.

The case itself is the focus of your research, not the variables.

You need to focus strongly on the purpose of your research.

The general purpose of case study research is to generate knowledge.

It can also be used for theoretical elaboration or analytical generalization.

Criticism of case study research is that it often depends on a single case.

That makes it difficult to have your findings apply generally.

Summary

Case study research is perfectly suited to finding solutions for social problems.

The current COVID-19 situation is a good example, where social scientists would investigate the psychological effect of the threat on people while natural scientists try to find a way in which to combat the virus.

Case study research can use most philosophical stances or paradigms.

Epistemological questions are mostly investigated.

A good measure of generalization is sought for human behavior at a particular time and context.

You, as the researcher, will need to come to a deeper understanding of the dynamics of the situation before a behavioral pattern can be identified and described.

Case studies investigate a target group through direct observation in a natural setting.

The purpose of the research is critically important.

Case study research can be used to generate knowledge, for theoretical elaboration and analytical generalization.

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ARTICLE 22: Research Methods for Ph. D. and Master’s Degree Studies

20th Aug 2020 No Comments

Written by Dr. Hannes Nel

Introduction

For my first doctoral study, I used a quantitative method, specifically CHAID supported with log-linear analysis and the CATMOD procedure. I chose this statistical method because I intended to send out many questionnaires. I had to ask for the assistance of the statisticians of the South African Council for Human Research to process my completed questionnaires.

Of course, I had to analyze the printouts of the processed data myself, else I would not have been able to come to any conclusions, findings or suggested solutions to my research problem.

In retrospect, I was walking on thin ice by making use of a statistical process about which I knew little.

Most of the methods that I will discuss should be used with qualitative research, although some should preferably be used with quantitative research.

All research methods can be used with a mixed approach.

Quantitative research methods are often dedicated to a specific scientific field of study rather than to a research method.

They sometimes also deviate from the generally accepted structure of a dissertation or thesis.

Research methods overlap with research paradigms and data collection methods. I will discuss them separately in future posts.

Mixed research methods

Research on the doctoral and master’s degree levels is becoming increasingly diverse and inclusive of both qualitative and quantitative research methods.

That is one of the reasons why a mixed-method approach is often followed.

Another reason why students decide to follow a mixed-method approach is that they feel that a combination provides a better understanding of a research problem than just focusing on qualitative or quantitative research methods.

Some students argue that a mixed-method enhances the validity and accuracy of data and the relevance and value of research findings.

The overarching premise is that the integration of two or more methods should facilitate the achievement of research objectives.

The decision of whether to integrate multiple methods depends on a combination of the research objectives, the resources and time available, your philosophical assumptions, your knowledge of research methods and your style or personal preferences. The people who will read your dissertation or thesis, especially your sponsor, but also your study leader, will also have an influence on which research method or methods you will use.

Different methods can be used as a form of triangulation in the hope that the findings from the different methods will corroborate one another.

Where will you discuss the research method that you will use?

You will probably discuss the research method that you will use in the second chapter of your dissertation or thesis.

You should explain:

The method that you will use without trying to “teach” your study leader or other readers the intricacies of research. They probably know more about this than you.
Why you chose the method.
The reason why you chose the method.

You should also provide a detailed description of the components of the methodology of your choice. I will discuss the components of different research methods in future posts, seeing that they differ for different research methods.

The method that you choose must enable you to progress from a problem situation to a solution.

As far as possible you should do as much of the work as possible on your own.

For my second doctoral study, I used Atlas.Ti to code and analyze the data that I collected, mostly through interviewing. I used grounded theory, which is a qualitative research method. This time around I attended a short course on Atlas.Ti at the University of Guildford in Surrey before embarking on my studies, so that I could do all the work on my own.

Your method or methods can consist of a combination of literature study, models, arguments, mathematical proofs, surveys, case studies, experimentation, etc.

Did you notice that I am integrating research methods with data collection methods here?

The chapter on your research methods is mostly not difficult to write.

After all, you will have all the information from a book or books that you consulted.

Even better, your study leader can suggest a method that will work well with the nature of your research.

In addition to the purpose of your research, you should also consider your knowledge, experience, strong points, weak points and the data that you will have access to.

Don’t choose a quantitative method if you feel uncomfortable with calculations and statistics or if you do not have access to laboratories or other scientific equipment that you will need.

Don’t choose a qualitative method if you will not have access to or feel comfortable with people as your target group.

Summary

You will probably use quantitative research methods if you feel comfortable with figures and statistics, if you have access to the laboratories or other scientific equipment that you will need for your research and if the topic of your research is such that it can be investigated quantitatively.

You will probably use qualitative research methods if you feel comfortable when working with people when the topic of your research is suitable for qualitative research and if you need to solve immediate social or community problems.

You will probably use mixed research methods if there is a need to collect and analyze quantitative and qualitative data.

You can use more than one research method, and some of them might be quantitative while others are qualitative in nature. Different methods can be used as a form of triangulation, which should give you a measure of corroboration of your data and findings.

Keep in mind that research methods, paradigms, data collection methods and data analysis methods are all parts of the research process.

You will probably discuss the research method that you will follow in the second chapter of your dissertation or thesis. Although it is an important chapter, you should not go into too much detail.

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